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Mephistopheles[a] (/ˌmɛfɪˈstɒfɪliːz/MEF-ist-OF-il-eez,German:[mefɪˈstoːfəlɛs]ⓘ), also known asMephostophilis[1] orMephisto,[2] is ademon featured inGerman folklore, originating as the chief devil in theFaust legend.[3] He has since become astock character appearing inother works of arts and popular culture. Mephistopheles never became an integral part of traditional magic.[4]
Around the 15th to 17th centuries in Europe, the age of witchcraft waned, and the Devil became more of a fixture in literature until the later 18th century. Once the idea of Satan's "metaphysical existence" seemed less pressing, he became a symbol in literature representing evil characters, evil meanings, corruption, etc.[5] Sometimes, authors had a more sympathetic depiction of Satan, which would later be called the Romantic Devil. Those who believed in pantheistic mysticism[6]— the belief that an individual experiences a mystical union with the divine, believing that God and the universe are one—often held that the angels fell from Heaven because they loved beauty and wanted to have Heaven for themselves.[7] This idea led to the workFaust byJohann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), in which Goethe created his version of the Devil, Mephistopheles. Goethe's Mephistopheles has been highly influential.[5]
The Enlightenment and Romantic eras in Europe increased the variety of views of the Devil.[8] Mephistopheles is seen as Hell's messenger, making him the servant of the Devil. In the Faust legend, he plays the roles of trickster, liar, cheater, and negotiator, making deals for souls, although he can also be intelligent, ironic, and charming. Mephistopheles can shapeshift into any animal, person, knight, etc., through magic and illusion.[9] He is the opponent of beauty and freedom, and he causes the death of the individuals and works to ruin lives.[10]
The nameMephistopheles is a corruptedGreekcompound.[11]The Greekparticle ofnegation (μή,mē) and the Greek word for "love" or "loving" (φίλος,philos) are the first and last terms of the compound, but the middle term is more doubtful.
Three possible meanings have been proposed, and three different etymologies have been offered:
Mephistopheles' name was possibly taken from the Hebrew words "mephiz", or destroyer, and "tophel", or slander. The name was invented for the historicalalchemistJohann Georg Faust by the anonymous author of the firstFaustbuch (published 1587).[2][12] However, in the Faustbuch he was calledMephostophiles, the name Mephistopheles was coined and popularised by Goethe.[12] Shakespeare used the name in the form ofMephistophilus, using the latin versionphilos instead of the Greekphilês.[12] Mephistopheles was not previously part of the traditional magical or demonological lore, but is a new coinage by a Rennaissance humanist drawing upon Greek and Latin.[12] In the play,Doctor Faustus (1604), created by Christopher Marlowe, Mephistopheles was written more as a fallen angel than as familiar demon. In the dramaFaust, written in two parts by J.W. von Goethe, Mephistopheles appears as cold-hearted, humorous, and ironic.[13]
Mephistopheles is associated with the Faust legend, based on the historicalJohann Georg Faust. In the legend, Faust, an ambitious scholar, makes adeal with the Devil at the price of his soul, with Mephistopheles acting as the devil's agent. The legend has come to symbolize the consequences of what happens when the quest for empowerment and realization escape the "intellectual and moral restrictions of the Christian medieval order."[14][15]
In the Faust legend written byChristopher Marlowe a psychological depth to the traditional view of the devil is added. Mephisto is not completely evil, because he laments the loss of his happiness, being shunned from God. He is introspective and clever and in this depiction very different from the comical ones in medieval times. He is aware of his role and regrets it, because he only perceives illusions instead of God.[16]
The name appears in the late-sixteenth-centuryFaust chapbooks – stories concerning the life of Johann Georg Faust, written by an anonymous German author. The first of these chapbooks,Historia von D. Johann Fausten (1587) is believed to be the first literary appearance of the Faust and Mephistopheles character.[14]In the 1725 version, whichGoethe read,Mephostophiles is adevil in the form of agreyfriar summoned by Faust in a wood outsideWittenberg.
From the chapbooks, the name Mephistophilis entered Faustian literature. Many authors have used it, from Goethe toChristopher Marlowe. In the 1616 edition of Marlowe'sThe Tragical History of Doctor Faustus,Mephostophiles becameMephistophilis.
In later adaptations of the Faust material, Mephistopheles frequently figures as a title character: inMeyer Lutz'sMephistopheles, or Faust and Marguerite (1855),Arrigo Boito'sMefistofele (1868),Klaus Mann'sMephisto, andFranz Liszt'sMephisto Waltzes. There are also many parallels with the character of Mephistopheles and the character Lord Henry Wotton inThe Picture of Dorian Gray byOscar Wilde.[17]
InGoethe's Faust, the role of Mephistopheles is quite complex, andJosef Kainz describes the role as one of the most significant challenges for an actor in world theater. The character constantly changes in tone throughout the play, giving the character a feeling of minor to no consistency in performance on stage. When Mephisto first meets Faust, he describes how his spirit being “Nothing” conflicts with the world’s spirit of “Something” (Part I Scene III, 1362-1366). The devil is in constant conflict with the world he is placed into, which explains the fluctuation of roles Mephisto portrays on the stage or screen. For an actor to play Goethe's Mephisto, they are called upon to embody this “Nothing” and disconnect themselves from the “Something” that makes them earthly. To achieve this characterization, actors are encouraged to be dramatic and rough in tone and gestures, contradicting traditional elements ofclassical theater.[18]
InMarlowe'sDoctor Faustus, the roles of Dr. Faustus and Mephistopheles between the two actors, Sandy Grierson and Oliver Ryan, in 2016. While playing both roles, the Scottish actor, Sandy Grierson, expressed that Mephistopheles is more humane than what is portrayed in other plays and novels.[19] The character correlates to the idea of humanity when Mephistopheles pleads with Faustus to reconsider his deal. "O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands" (Act II, Scene 1). Mephistopheles portrays a sense of feeling to prevent Dr. Faustus from making the incorrect decision. Concluding that Mephistopheles is portrayed as less condescending and cold-hearted.Arthur Darvill, while playing as Mephistopheles in the 2011 Shakespeare's Globe Theatre's production of Doctor Faustus, expressed how thrilling his experience was on Shakespeare's Globe Youtube Channel.[20]
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Although Mephistopheles appears to Faustus as ademon – a worker forLucifer – critics claim that he does not search for men to corrupt, but comes to serve and ultimately collect the souls of those who are already damned. Willard Farnham explains, "Nor does Mephistophiles first appear to Faustus as a devil who walks up and down on earth to tempt and corrupt any man encountered. He appears because he senses in Faustus' magical summons that Faustus is already corrupt, that indeed he is already 'in danger to be damned'."[21]
Mephistopheles is already trapped in his own Hell by serving the Devil. He warns Faustus of the choice he is making by "selling his soul" to the devil: "Mephistophilis, an agent of Lucifer, appears and at first advises Faust not to forego the promise ofheaven to pursue his goals".[22] Farnham adds to his theory, "...[Faustus] enters an ever-present private hell like that of Mephistophiles".[23]
Though Mephistopheles can be interpreted as vile through his actions, he profoundly warns Faustus of God’s wrath if he does not repent. Osman Durrani describes the character as “simultaneously, an example of gross depravity and a morally aware theologian.”[1]
Dorothy L. Sayers' play,The Devil to Pay, published in 1939, portrays Mephistopheles as a familiar of the devil as well. Sayers created Mephistopheles to seem mischievous and daunting, while doing the devil's bidding. In this play, it appears as if Mephistopheles' actions were done willingly. Mephistopheles did not necessarily warn Dr. Faustus; rather, he persuaded him to believe that he was to be his servant instead. Once Dr. Faustus was gone, Mephistopheles called into the Hell-Mouth, "Lucifer, Lucifer! The bird is caught..."[Mephistopheles].[24]
This interpretation of Mephistopheles falls in line with the Protestant revisioning of magic, specifically conjuring. In the late 1580's, popular Protestant writers argued that conjurations were "theatrical spectacles", in which Satan allowed demons to appear as if they had been summoned and controlled by humans. This performance further damns the soul of the magician and allows for the demon to collect his soul for Lucifer. These revisions were widely circulated before Marlowe'sDr. Faustus premiered and were integrated into his work.[25]
The nature between God and evil is complex amongst the theological issues. In Abrahamic religions, God is inherently deemed as good and not capable of being evil, though those religions also have to acknowledge the existence of evil in the world. Through the ideals of the Society of Jesuits, the Roman Catholic religious order expressed that nature is undistorted by original sin.[26] Mephistopheles also appears as a nature spirit, a Naturgeist.,[27] though he is still deemed as evil or rather destructive amongst many scholars. However, Jane K. Brown suggests that Mephistopheles is Faust's "mediator to the world," that he is neither evil or destructive.[28] Brown suggests that nature is where God and the devil meet and this is where humans live. Mephistopheles, then, represents one of the two souls that humans naturally possess, Faust's struggle between the "divine principle (mind or spirit) and the world (physical nature)."[28] Mephistopheles is a nature spirit representing the unsegmented world through the human experience.[29]
One interpretation of the character is that Mephistopheles presents himself as asexual voyeur. This voyeurism can represent Faust’s sexual confusion and temptation. An example would be Faust’s interactions with Helen of Troy, in which, given temptation, Mephistopheles loosens his grip on Faust as he falls further from God and Heaven.[18]
Mephistopheles can also be perceived as a homoerotic character. When observing male angels during the burial scene in Goethe'sFaust, he can be seen as becoming physically aroused. Later on, he becomes consumed by his feelings as he is engulfed in flames. This is believed to be the Lord's plan since the beginning in order to save Faust from damnation. By tempting Mephistopheles's homoerotic nature he is unable to focus on corrupting Faust, subsequently saving him.[1]
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