Amenhir (/ˈmɛnhɪər/;[1] fromBrittonic languages:maen ormen, "stone" andhir orhîr, "long"[2]),standing stone,orthostat, orlith is a large uprightstone, emplaced in the ground by humans, typically dating from the Europeanmiddle Bronze Age. They can be found individually asmonoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Menhirs' size can vary considerably, but they often taper toward the top.
Menhirs are found across Europe, Africa, and Asia, with a concentration inWestern Europe, notably inIreland,Great Britain, andBrittany. Theories concerning their purpose remain speculative, with hypotheses ranging fromdruidic rituals to territorial markers or elements of an ideological system. Some menhirs featureengravings, including anthropomorphic figures and symbols, and are often associated with ancient religious ceremonies andburial chambers.
The wordmenhir was adopted from French by 19th-century archaeologists. The introduction of the word into general archaeological usage has been attributed to the 18th-century French military officerThéophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne.[3] It is a combination of two words of the Breton language:maen andhir. Inmodern Welsh, they are described asmaen hir, or "long stone". In modern Breton, the wordpeulvan is used, withpeul meaning "stake" or "post" andvan which is asoft mutation of the wordmaen which means "stone". In Germany and Scandinavia the wordBauta is used (German:Bautastein; Norwegian:bautastein) and this occasionally makes its way into English with the term "bauta stone".
During the European Middle Ages, standing stones were believed to have been built by thegiants who lived before thebiblical flood. Many of themegaliths were destroyed or defaced by early Christians; it is estimated that some 50,000 megaliths once stood in Northern Europe, where almost 10,000 now remain.[6] Menhirs have also been found in many other parts of the world.
Many menhirs are engraved withmegalithic art, some withanthropomorphic features. Other common carvings are identified as images ofstone axes, ploughs, shepherds' crooks, and yokes; and are named after these motifs. However, these identifications are not secure except for those of the stone axe images, and the names used to describe them are largely a matter of convenience. Some menhirs were broken up and incorporated into laterpassage graves, where they had new megalithic art carved with little regard for the previous pictures. It is not known if this re-use was deliberate or if the passage grave builders just saw menhirs as a convenient source of stone.[7]
Where menhirs appear in groups, often in a circular, oval,henge, or horseshoe formation, they are sometimes called megalithic monuments. These are sites of ancient religious ceremonies, sometimes containing burial chambers.[8] The exact function of menhirs has provoked more debate than practically any other issue inEuropean prehistory. Over the centuries, they have variously been thought to have been used bydruids for human sacrifice, used as territorial markers, or elements of a complex ideological system, used asmnemonic systems fororal cultures,[9] or functioning as early calendars.[10] Until the nineteenth century, antiquarians did not have substantial knowledge of prehistory, and their only reference points were provided by classical literature. The developments ofradiocarbon dating anddendrochronology have significantly advanced scientific knowledge in this area.
Menhirs are widely distributed across Europe, Africa, and Asia, but are most numerous in Western Europe; particularly in Ireland, Great Britain, andBrittany, where there are about 50,000 examples,[11] and northwestern France, where there are some 1,200 further examples.[12] Standing stones are usually difficult to date. They were constructed during many different periods across prehistory as part of the largermegalithic cultures in Europe and near areas. Some menhirs stand next to buildings that have an early or current religious significance. One example is theSouth Zeal Menhir in Devon, which formed the basis for a 12th-centurymonastery built by lay monks. The monastery later became the Oxenham Arms hotel, at South Zeal, and the standing stone remains in place in thesnug bar at the hotel.[13][14]
It is believed that practitioners of megalithic religions travelled via the sea, as the mass majority of menhirs are located on coasts, islands, and peninsulas.[15]
^De Breffny, Brian (1983).Ireland: A Cultural Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 229.
^Aviva, Elyn; White, Gary (October 1998). "Mysterious Megaliths: The Standing Stones of Carnac, Brittany, France".World and I. Vol. 13.
^Olsen, Brad (February 2004)."Carbnac".Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations By Brad Olsen. Consortium of Collective Consciousness. p. 232.ISBN1-888729-10-4. Retrieved21 February 2010.
^Le Roux, C. T. (1992). "The Art of Gavrinis Presented in its Armorican Context and in Comparison with Ireland".Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.122:79–108.
^Roberts, Chris (2006).Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme. Thorndike Press.ISBN0-7862-8517-6.
^Kelly, Lynne (2015).Knowledge and Power in Prehistoric Societies: Orality, Memory, and the Transmission of Culture. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107059375.OCLC910935575.
^Patton, Mark. (1993).Statements in Stone: Monuments and Society in Neolithic Brittany. New York: Routledge. p. 4.
Mohen, Jean-Pierre (2000) [1998].Standing Stones: Stonehenge, Carnac and the World of Megaliths.New Horizons series. Translated by Baker, Dorie B.; Baker, David J. London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN0-500-30090-9.
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