Mekong Delta Đồng bằng Sông Cửu Long Đồng Bằng Sông Mê Kông | |
|---|---|
 Rice paddy in the Mekong River Delta. | |
| Nicknames: "Nine Dragon river delta", "Western Region" | |
 Provincial map | |
| Coordinates:10°02′N105°48′E / 10.04°N 105.80°E /10.04; 105.80 | |
| Country |  Vietnam |
| Largest City | Can Tho |
| Area | |
• Total | 43,000 km2 (17,000 sq mi) |
| Population (2022)[1] | |
• Total | 19,000,000 |
| • Density | 440/km2 (1,100/sq mi) |
| GDP | |
| • Total | VND 823 trillion US$36.2 billion (2021) |
| Time zone | UTC+07:00 (ICT) |
| HDI (2022) | 0.684[3] high ·5th |
TheMekong Delta (Vietnamese:Đồng bằng Sông Cửu Long,lit. 'Nine Dragon River Delta' or simplyĐồng Bằng Sông Mê Kông,'Mekong River Delta'), also known as theSouth-western Region (Vietnamese:Tây Nam Bộ) or theWestern Region (Vietnamese:Miền Tây), is theregion in southwestern Vietnam where theMekong Riverapproaches and empties into the sea through a network ofdistributaries. The Mekong delta region encompasses a large portion of south-westernVietnam, of an area of over 40,500 km2 (15,600 sq mi).[4] The size of the area covered by water depends on the season. Its wet coastal geography makes it an important source of agriculture and aquaculture for the country.
The delta has been occupied as early as the 4th century BC. As a product ofKhmer,Vietnamese, Chinese, andFrench settlement in the region, the delta and its waterways have numerous names, including theKhmer termBassac to refer to the lower basin and the largest river branch flowing through it.[5] After the1954 Geneva Conference, Vietnam was split into two[6] with South Vietnam inheriting the southern half of Vietnam becoming theState of Vietnam and eventually theRepublic of Vietnam, also known as South Vietnam, with their own administrative states (seeCategory:Provinces of South Vietnam). After 1975, the Mekong Delta ceased being a part of the Republic of Vietnam, succeeded by the current Vietnamese nation. The region comprises 4 provinces:Đồng Tháp,An Giang,Vĩnh Long, andCà Mau, along with the province-level municipality ofCần Thơ.
The Mekong Delta has been dubbed a "biological treasure trove".[7] Over 1,000 animal species were recorded between 1997 and 2007 and new species of plants, fish, lizards, and mammals have been discovered in previously unexplored areas, including theLaotian rock rat, thought to be extinct.[8] The low-lying coastal geography of the region makes itvulnerable to climate change causedsea level rise, alongside related issues such ascoastal erosion andsaltwater intrusion.
The Mekong Delta was likely inhabited long since prehistory with the civilizations ofFunan andChenla maintaining a presence in the Mekong Delta for centuries.[9] Archaeological discoveries atÓc Eo and other Funanese sites show that the area was an important part of the Funan civilization, bustling with trading ports and canals as early as in the first century AD and extensive human settlement in the region may have gone as far back as the 4th century BC. While there is no clear consensus on the ethnic makeup of those living in the region during the Funan, archaeologists suggest that they may have had connections toAustroasiatic people.Khmer inscriptions appear during theChenla period.
Angkor Borei is a site in the Mekong Delta that existed between 400 BC-500 AD. This site had extensive maritime trade networks throughout Southeast Asia and with India, and is believed to have possibly been the ancient capital to the civilization of Funan.[10]
In the early 15th century,Champa began mounting several incursions in the Mekong Delta. The declining Kingdom of Cambodia asked the ChineseMing Empire for intervention in 1408 and 1414. Despite that, in 1421Indravarman VI of Champa seized and annexed the eastern part of the Mekong Delta, including the marketplace town ofBiên Hòa. He installed a statue of Tribhuvanākrānta (Visnu) there to mark the southern most extent of Champa.[11][12] In 1757, Vietnamese lords had acquired control ofCà Mau. By the 1860s, French colonists had established control over the Mekong Delta and established the colony ofFrench Cochinchina.
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The Vietnamese acquisition of the Mekong Delta can be divided into two phases:
In 1621, LordNguyễn Phúc Nguyênarranged a contract marriage between his daughterNguyễn Phúc Ngọc Vạn and Cambodian kingChey Chettha II in exchange to the establishment of a Vietnamese trade port in town of Prei Nokor (nowHo Chi Minh City) and tax exemptions for Vietnamese settlers moving into the area. Vice versa, the Nguyễn will help Cambodia politically and militarily to counter againstAyutthaya Kingdom (Siamese) pressures. Earliest Vietnamese settlements in the Mekong Delta appeared and centered aroundĐồng Nai and Mỗi Xoài (todayBà Rịa–Vũng Tàu).[13]
In 1658, without any excuses, the Nguyễn invaded Cambodia and deposed the only Khmer Muslim kingRamathipadi I (Sultan Ibrahim). 16 years later, the Nguyễn again militarily interfered Cambodian internal royal affairs, putting PrinceAng Nan into power. The Nguyễn invited fleeing Chinese refugees to settle in Mekong River entrance towns ofMỹ Tho andBiên Hoà In 1688, the Chinese revolted againstNguyễn lords. King Ang Nan died in 1691, and the revolt was soon resolved.[14]
After fully subjugatingChampa in 1697, the Nguyễn lords sent marquisNguyễn Hữu Cảnh and a small expedition to annex Prei Nokor, renamed it toGia Định, establishing Vietnamese administrative structures, and explore deep into the lower Mekong Delta from Mỹ Tho toAn Giang.[14] KingChey Chettha IV of Cambodia tried to stop the Vietnamese but was defeated by Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh in 1700. In February 1700, he invaded Cambodia from An Giang. In March, the Vietnamese expedition under Cảnh and a Chinese generalTrần Thượng Xuyên (Chen Shangchuan) defeated the main Cambodian army at Bích Đôi citadel, king Chey Chettha IV took flight while his nephewAng Em surrendered to the invaders as the Vietnamese capturedPhnom Penh. As a result, Saigon andLong An were officially obtained by the Nguyễn, more Vietnamese settlers moved into the new conquered lands. In 1708,Mạc Cửu ofHà Tiên also pledged loyalty to the Nguyễn lords.[14]
In the 18th century, the edges of the Mekong Delta bordering with Cambodia had been mainly inhabited by isolated communities ofShafi'iChams and Islamic Cham–Malays collectively known as the Cham Barw or Côn Man (Kunlun) by Vietnamese sources, while most of the Delta remained under Cambodian control. Under the reign of kingChey Chettha V, in 1750 he began subduing and persecuting the Cham–Malay Muslims, who at the time were close allies of the Nguyễn lords. Using that pretext, LordNguyễn Phúc Khoát launched a full-scale invasion of Cambodia in 1754, with the army under the command of generalNguyễn Cư Trinh. 10,000 Vietnamese troops divided into two groups, rolled into Cambodia and completely flattened Cambodian resistance and easily captured its capitalPhnom Penh in summer of 1754. King Chey Chettha V fled toLongvek.[15]
The Muslims rose up and joined the Vietnamese chasing the Cambodians. Due to heavy spring rain, the Muslim segment lost contact with the main army of Nguyễn Cư Trinh, and were surrounded by 10,000 Cambodians at Vô Tà Ân in early 1755. Muslim troops piled carts and wagons into a defensive perimeter and stood their ground against Cambodian attacks until being relieved by Nguyễn Cư Trinh. With the help of mediation byMạc Thiên Tứ ofHà Tiên, a ceasefire agreement was reached between King Chey Chettha V and Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát in 1756: Cambodia cededGò Công andTân An to the Vietnamese, Chey Chettha V was deposed, whileAng Tong was restored as King of Cambodia. Ang Tong offered the Nguyễn two districts ofTrà Vinh and Ba Thắc as tributes.[16]
In 1757, Ang Tong died and was succeededOutey II. With the help of the Nguyễn Lords and the Principality ofHà Tiên, Outey II regained the throne from usurpers. He gave all remaining Mekong Delta lands toMạc Thiên Tứ, and Mạc Thiên Tứ swapped all these areas to the Nguyễn in exchange for the Mạc clan's total autonomy in Hà Tiên. The new lands were divided into two districts:Rạch Giá andCà Mau.[16] By 1757, all of today's Mekong Delta including theCape Cà Mau firmly came under Vietnamese control.[16]
In 1802 Nguyễn Ánh crowned himself emperorGia Long and unified all the territories comprising modern Vietnam, including the Mekong Delta.
Upon the conclusion of theCochinchina Campaign in the 1860s, the area became part ofCochinchina, France's first colony in Vietnam, and later, part ofFrench Indochina.[17] Beginning during the French colonial period, the French patrolled and fought on the waterways of the Mekong Delta region with theirDivisions navales d'assaut (Dinassaut), a tactic which lasted throughout theFirst Indochina War, and was later employed by the US NavyMobile Riverine Force.[18] During theVietnam War—also referred to as the Second Indochina War—the Delta region saw savage fighting betweenViet Cong (NLF)guerrillas and the US 9th Infantry Division and units of the United States Navy'sswift boats andhovercraft (PACVs) plus theArmy of the Republic of Vietnam7th,9th, and21st Infantry Divisions. As a military region the Mekong Delta was encompassed by theIV Corps Tactical Zone (IV CTZ).
In 1975, North Vietnamese soldiers and Viet Cong soldiers launched amassive invasion in many parts of South Vietnam. WhileI,II, andIII Corps collapsed significantly, IV Corps was still highly intact due to under Major GeneralNguyễn Khoa Nam overseeing strong military operations to prevent VC taking over any important regional districts. Brigadier General Lê Văn Hưng, the head of 21st Division commander, stayed office in Cần Thơ to continue defending successfully against VC. On 29 April 1975, the last U.S. Consul GeneralTerry McNamara and his diplomats evacuated by marine boat from Cần Thơ to the South China Sea.[19] When the South Vietnamese PresidentDương Văn Minh ordered unconditional surrender, both ARVN generals in Cần Thơ, GeneralLê Văn Hưng and Nguyễn Khoa Nam, committed suicide. AtBinh Thuy Air Base some ARVN soldiers and air base personnel who defended the air base were evacuated by helicopters and several jet fighters toThailand shortly after hearing Minh's surrender. Within hours, VC soldiers occupied the base and captured those ARVN and air base personnel who didn't escape.[20] InMỹ Tho, Brigadier GeneralTrần Văn Hai, who was in charged protectingNational Highway 4 (now NH1A) from Saigon to Cần Thơ, committed suicide. Tran was one of the three ARVN generals who refused to be evacuated by American forces when the North Vietnamese soldiers invaded Saigon.[21] Several ARVN soldiers continued to fight against the VC but later either surrendered or disbanded when faced with VC counterattacks.[22]
In the late 1970s, theKhmer Rouge regime attacked Vietnam in an attempt to reconquer the Delta region. This campaign precipitated the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia and subsequent downfall of the Khmer Rouge.
The Mekong Delta, as a region, lies immediately to the west ofHo Chi Minh City (also called Saigon by locals), roughly forming a triangle stretching fromMỹ Tho in the east toChâu Đốc andHà Tiên in the northwest, down toCà Mau at the southernmost tip of Vietnam, and including the island ofPhú Quốc.[23]
The Mekong Delta region of Vietnam displays a variety of physical landscapes, but is dominated by flat flood plains in the south, with a few hills in the north and west. This diversity of terrain was largely the product oftectonic uplift andfolding brought about by the collision of theIndian andEurasian tectonic plates about 50 million years ago. The soil of the lower Delta consists mainly of sediment from theMekong and its tributaries, deposited over thousands of years as the river changed its course due to the flatness of the low-lying terrain.[24]
The present Mekong Delta system has two major distributary channels, both discharging directly into theEast Sea. The river carries over 160 million tons of sediment, including 6.5 million tons of sand, each year.[25][26] Historicsediment loads are estimated to be higher, but have been reduced due to damming forhydropower in the upper reaches of the Mekong River Basin, and sand mining in the riverbed.[27] Sediment is the driving factor in building the delta seaward (progradation), and upward (aggradation) from seasonal flooding, and is counteracted bycoastal erosion andsea level rise.
TheHolocene history of the Mekong Delta shows delta progradation of about 200 km during the last 6 kyr. During the Middle Holocene the Mekong River was discharging waters into both the East Sea and theGulf of Thailand.[28] The water entering the Gulf of Thailand was flowing via a palaeochannel located within the western part of the delta; north of the Camau Peninsula.[29] UpperPleistocene prodeltaic and delta front sediments interpreted as the deposits of the palaeo-Mekong River were reported from central basin of theGulf of Thailand.[30][31]
The Mekong Delta is the region with the smallest forest area in Vietnam. 300,000 ha (740,000 acres) or 7.7% of the total area are forested as of 2011. The only provinces with large forests areCà Mau andAn Giang, together accounting for two-thirds of the region's forest area, while forests cover less than 5% of the area of all of the other eight provinces and cities.[32]
| Shoreline change (m/yr) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zones | 1973–1979 | 1973–1979 | 1987–1995 | 1987–1995 | 1987–1995 | 43-yr average |
| Zone-1 | 8.66 | 8.07 | 12.07 | 9.68 | 4.52 | 8.87 |
| Zone-2 | −10.32 | −8.00 | −12.22 | −13.15 | −20.9 | −12.79 |
| Zone-3 | 28.15 | 23.33 | 27.55 | 19.48 | 11.83 | 21.53 |
| Zone-4 | 8.43 | 2.48 | 3.57 | -10.03 | −4.53 | −1.66 |
| All areas | 7.77 | 6.11 | 7.84 | 2.75 | −1.42 | 4.36 |
| Area change (km2/yr) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zones | 1973–1979 | 1973–1979 | 1987–1995 | 1987–1995 | 1987–1995 | 43-yr average |
| Zone-1 | 1.94 | 2.01 | 2.96 | 2.25 | 1.15 | 2.12 |
| Zone-2 | −1.39 | −1.87 | −2.23 | −1.75 | −1.71 | −1.71 |
| Zone-3 | 2.82 | 2.16 | 1.71 | 1.09 | 1.64 | 1.99 |
| Zone-4 | 0.95 | 0.35 | −0.53 | −0.56 | −1.13 | −0.18 |
| All areas | 4.32 | 2.64 | 1.91 | 1.03 | −0.05 | 2.23 |
From 1973 to 2005, the Mekong Delta's seaward shoreline growth decreased gradually from a mean of 7.8 m/yr to 2.8 m/yr, becoming negative after 2005, with a retreat rate of −1.4 m/yr. The net deltaic land area gain has also been slowing, with the mean rate decreasing from 4.3 km2/yr (1973–1979) to 1.0 km2 yr (1995–2005), and then to −0.05 km2/yr (2005–2015). Thus, in about 2005, the subaerial Mekong Delta transitioned from a constructive mode to an erosional (or destructive) mode.[33][34]
Being a low-lying coastal region, the Mekong Delta is particularly susceptible to floods resulting from rises in sea level due toclimate change.[35] The Climate Change Research Institute atCần Thơ University, in studying the possibleconsequences of climate change, has predicted that, besides suffering from drought brought on by seasonal decrease in rainfall, many provinces in the Mekong Delta face risk of flooding by the year 2030.[36] Plans are currently being made to breach dykes in the upper Mekong delta, as asedimentation enhancing strategy. This will not only increase the water retention capacity of the upper delta region, alleviating pressure on the lower delta, but also reintroduce sediment-rich water which may result in land elevation.[37] Another problem caused by climate change is the increasingsoil salinity near the coasts. Bến Tre province is planning to reforest coastal regions to counter this trend.[38]
The duration of inundations at an important road in the city of Cần Thơ is expected to continue to rise from the current total of 72 inundated days per year to 270 days by 2030 and 365 days by 2050. This is attributed to the combined influence of sea-level rise andland subsidence,[39] which occurs at about 1.1 cm (0.43 in) annually.[40] Several projects and initiatives on local, regional and state levels work to counter this trend and save the Mekong Delta. For example, there exists a programme for integratedcoastal management that is supported by Germany and Australia.[41] Additionally, international and local initiatives, including significant environmental funding and legislation like Resolution 120 in 2017, emphasize sustainable management and conservation ofnatural resources, focusing on nature-based solutions such as retrofitting dikes, mangrove restoration, and multi-value farming to mitigate environmental degradation.[42]
In August 2019, aNature Communications study using an improved measure of elevation estimation, found that the delta was much lower than previous estimates, only a mean 0.82 m (2 ft 8 in) above sea level, with 75% of the delta—an area where 12 million people currently live—falling below 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[40] It is expected that a majority of the delta will bebelow sea level by 2050.[43]
The inhabitants of the Mekong Delta region are predominantly ethnicVietnamese.[44] It is home to the largest population ofKhmer outside of Cambodia. The Khmer minority population live primarily in theTrà Vinh,Sóc Trăng, and MuslimChăm inTân Châu,An Giang andCà Mau provinces. There are also sizeableHoa (ethnic Chinese) populations in theKiên Giang, andTrà Vinh provinces. The region had a population of 17.33 million people in 2011.[32]
The languages spoken in the Mekong Delta are mainlyVietnamese andKhmer which cover almost the majority of the population. Then there are also variousChinese languages spoken by the Hoa community, as well as theCham andMekong Delta Malay languages which are thelingua franca for theMuslim community there.
The population of the Mekong Delta has been growing relatively slowly in recent years, mainly due to out-migration. The region's population only increased by 471,600 people between 2005 and 2011, while 166,400 people migrated out in 2011 alone. Together with the central coast regions, it has one of the slowest growing populations in the country. Population growth rates have been between 0.3% and 0.5% between 2008 and 2011, while they have been over 2% in the neighbouringsoutheastern region.[32] Net migration has been negative in all of these years. The region also has a relatively lowfertility rate, at 1.8 children per woman in 2010 and 2011, down from 2.0 in 2005.[32]
| Province- Level Division | Capital | Area[1][2] | Population (2024)[1] | Population density | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| An Giang | Rạch Giá | 9,889.91 | 3,818.52 | 4,952,238 | 500 | 1,300 |
| Cà Mau | Tân Thành | 7,942.39 | 3,066.57 | 2,606,672 | 328 | 850 |
| Đồng Tháp | Mỹ Tho | 5,938.64 | 2,292.92 | 4,370,046 | 736 | 1,910 |
| Vĩnh Long | Long Châu | 6,296.20 | 2,430.98 | 4,257,581 | 676 | 1,750 |
| Cần Thơ | Ninh Kiều | 6,360.83 | 2,455.93 | 4,199,824 | 660 | 1,700 |
The Mekong Delta is by far Vietnam's most productive region in agriculture and aquaculture,[45] while its role in industry andforeign direct investment (FDI) is much smaller.
2.6 million ha in the Mekong Delta are used for agriculture, which is one fourth of Vietnam's total.[32] Due to its mostly flat terrain and few forested areas (except forCà Mau province), almost two-thirds (64.5%) of the region's land can be used for agriculture. The share of agricultural land exceeds 80% inCần Thơ and neighbouringHậu Giang province and is below 50% only inCà Mau province (32%) andBạc Liêu province (42%).[32] The region's land used for growing cereals makes up 47% of the national total, more than northern and central Vietnam combined. Most of this is used for rice cultivation.
Rice output in 2011 was 23,186,000t, 54.8% of Vietnam's total output. The strongest producers areKiên Giang province, An Giang province, andĐồng Tháp province, producing over 3 million tonnes each and almost 11 million tonnes together. Any two of these provinces produce more than the entireRed River Delta.[32] Only three provinces produce less than 1 million tonnes of rice (Bạc Liêu province,Cà Mau province,Bến Tre province).[32]
The Mekong Delta is also Vietnam's most important fishing region. It has almost half of Vietnam's capacity of offshore fishing vessels (mostly in Kien Gian with almost 1/4, Bến Tre, Cà Mau, Tiền Giang, Bạc Liêu). Fishery output was at 3.168 million tons (58.3% of Vietnam) and has experienced rapid growth from 1.84mt in 2005.[32] All of Vietnam's largest fishery producers with over 300kt of output are in the Mekong Delta: Kiên Giang, Cà Mau, Đồng Tháp, An Giang, and Bến Tre.[32]
Despite the region's large offshore fishing fleet, 2/3 (2.13 million tonnes out of Vietnam's total of 2.93) of fishery output actually comes from aquaculture.[32]
December 2015, aquaculture production was estimated at 357 thousand tons, up 11% compared to the same period last year, bringing the total aquaculture production 3516 thousand tons in 2015, up 3.0% compared to the same period. Although aquaculture production has increased overall, aquaculture still faces many difficulties coming from export markets.
The Mekong Delta is not strongly industrialized, but is still the third out of seven regions in terms of industrialgross output.[46] The region's industry accounts for 10% of Vietnam's total as of 2011.[32] Almost half of the region's industrial production is concentrated inCần Thơ, Long An province andCà Mau province. Cần Thơ is the economic center of the region and more industrialized than the other provinces. Long An has been the only province of the region to attract part of the manufacturing booming aroundHo Chi Minh City and is seen by other provinces as an example of successful FDI attraction.[47]Cà Mau province is home to a large industrial zone including power plants and a fertiliser factory.[48][49] Accumulated foreign direct investment in the Mekong Delta until 2011 was $10.257bn.[32] It has been highly concentrated in a few provinces, led byLong An andKiên Giang with over $3bn each,Tiền Giang andCần Thơ (around 850m),Cà Mau (780m) andHậu Giang (673m), while the other provinces have received less than 200m each.[32] In general, the performance of the region in attracting FDI is evaluated as unsatisfactory by local analysts and policymakers.[47][50][51] Companies fromHo Chi Minh City have also invested heavily in the region. Their investment from 2000 to June 2011 accounted for 199 trillion VND (almost $10bn).[52]
The construction of theCần Thơ Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge over the largestdistributary of the Mekong River,[53] was completed on April 12, 2010, three years after acollapse that killed 54 and injured nearly 100 workers.[54] The bridge replaces the ferry system that currently runs alongNational Route 1, and linksVĩnh Long province andCần Thơ city. The cost of construction is estimated to be 4.842 trillionVietnamese đồng (approximately 342.6 millionUnited States dollars), making it the most expensive bridge inVietnam.[55]
The region is served by 4 airports:
However, Ho Chi Minh City'sTan Son Nhat International Airport is another alternative airport which provides more domestic and international destinations. The airport is approximately located 160 km north of Cần Thơ.
Life in the Mekong Delta revolves much around the river, and many of the villages are often accessible by rivers and canals rather than by road.
The region is home tocải lương, a form of Kinh/Vietnamese folk opera. Cai Luong Singing appeared in Mekong Delta in the early 20th century. Cai Luong Singing is often performed to the accompaniment of guitar and zither. Cai Luong is a kind of play telling a story. This often includes two main parts: the dialogue part and the singing part to express their thoughts and emotions.[56]
The Mekong Delta cuisine relies heavily on fresh products which is abundant in the new land with heavy use of seafoods and unique ingredients of the region such aspalm sugar,basa fish and wild herbs and flowers such asđiên điển,so đũa,kèo nèo. The history of the region being a newly settled area reflects on its cuisine, withẨm thực khẩn hoang orSettlers cuisine means dishes are prepared fresh from wild and newly-caught ingredients. The cuisine is also influenced by Khmer, Cham and Chinese settlers. This differs itself from the cuisine of other regions of Vietnam.
Nguyễn Ngọc Tư, an author fromCà Mau province, has written many popular books about life in the Mekong Delta such as:
The 2004 filmThe Buffalo Boy is set in Cà Mau province.
Some Vietnamese films on the topic of life in the Mekong Delta attract the attention of a large audience: Tình Mẫu Tử (Mother and child love, 2019), Phận làm dâu (Bride's fate, 2018), etc.
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