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Megacity

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(Redirected fromMegacities)
Metropolitan area with a total population in excess of ten million people
"Mega city" redirects here. For other uses, seeMegacity (disambiguation).

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Amegacity is a very largecity, typically with apopulation of more than 10 million people.[1][2][3][4] TheUnited Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) in its 2018 "World Urbanization Prospects" report defines megacities asurban agglomerations with over 10 million inhabitants.[5] AUniversity of Bonn report holds that they are "usually defined asmetropolitan areas with a total population of 10 million or more people".[6] Elsewhere in other sources, from five to eight million is considered the minimum threshold, along with apopulation density of at least 2,000 per square kilometre.[7] The termsconurbation,metropolis, and metroplex are also applied to the latter.[7]

The total number of megacities in the world varies between different sources and their publication dates. The world had 32 according to EUGlobal Human Settlement Layer (in 2024), 33 according to UN DESA (in 2018), 39 according to the OECD, 42 according toDemographia (in 2025), and 45 according toCityPopulation.de (in 2023). In total, at most 54 unique places are mentioned as megacities across these sources, although some of these are just aglomerated differently between them. A good percentage of these urban agglomerations are inChina andIndia. The other four countries with more than one megacity areBrazil,Japan,Pakistan, and theUnited States. African megacities are present inNigeria,Egypt,South Africa,Angola andthe DRC;European megacities are present inRussia,France, theUnited Kingdom, andTurkey (also inAsia); megacities can be found inLatin America in the countries of Brazil,Mexico,Colombia,Peru, andArgentina.

All newest,satellite imagery based, sources identify thePearl River Delta in China as the largest megacity and continiously built up area of the world[8][9][10][11][12] while the older ones lists theGreater Tokyo Area.[5]

Urban Metric System

Main article:Settlement hierarchy
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Since, presently, urban data are based on arbitrary definitions that vary from country to country and from year or census to the next, making them difficult to compare, an Urban Metric System (UMS) has been conceived that could correct the problem,[13] since it allows computing the urban area limits and central points, and it can be applied in the same way to all past, present and future population and job distributions.

It is based on vector field calculations obtained by assuming that, in a given space, all inhabitants and jobs exert the same attractive forceA and repulsive forceR. The net force (A −R) exerted by each inhabitant or job is given by [1/(1 +d)] - [1/(β +d/2)], whered = distance andβ is the only parameter.

UMS distinguishes the following types of urban areas (including "patropolises" that are tantamount to "megacities"), each type corresponding to a given value ofβ:

Urban areaDistance at which the attractive force = the repulsive forceValue ofβ
1Central city10 km6
2Agglomeration20 km11
3Metropolis40 km21
4Patropolis80 km41
5Megalopolis160 km81
6Urban system320 km161
7Urban macrosystem640 km321
8Continental system1,280 km641
9Intercontinental system2,560 km1,281
10World system5,120 km2,561

UMS has been applied to some Canadian cases since 2018, but the data presented in this article are still based on the various existing national definitions, which are disparate.

List of megacities

Numbers in red with an asterisk (*) do not meet the 10 million threshold to be considered a megacity.

MegacityImageCountryRegionEstimated population
Citypopulation.de
(2025)[9]		Demographia
(2025)[8]		GHSL
(2024)[14]		UN DESA
(2018)[5]		OECD
(2020)[15]
Bangalore IndiaSouth Asia14,700,00016,216,00015,178,53311,440,00014,253,019
Bangkok ThailandSoutheast Asia21,800,00020,284,00019,048,03210,156,00018,601,400
Beijing ChinaEast Asia21,500,00022,363,00018,150,57619,618,00020,738,738
Bogotá ColombiaSouth America10,600,00010,734,00010,419,36110,574,00010,544,590
Buenos Aires ArgentinaSouth America16,800,00015,933,00014,179,91214,967,00014,590,526
Cairo EgyptNorth Africa22,800,00022,684,00025,230,32520,076,00027,925,433
Changsha ChinaEast Asia11,500,0003,709,000*3,246,971*4,345,000*4,009,195*
Chengdu ChinaEast Asia18,100,0008,040,000*5,609,627*8,813,000*9,768,500*
Chennai IndiaSouth Asia12,900,00011,950,00011,466,40010,456,00011,528,915
Chongqing ChinaEast Asia12,900,00011,524,0008,449,690*14,838,0008,913,804*
Delhi IndiaSouth Asia35,700,00033,224,00031,422,50828,514,00033,495,554
Dhaka BangladeshSouth Asia23,100,00025,305,00037,307,16019,578,00022,762,988
Guangzhou ChinaEast Asia72,700,00069,562,00042,987,70412,638,00016,650,322
Hangzhou ChinaEast Asia14,600,00012,422,0006,387,064*7,236,000*9,013,951*
Ho Chi Minh City VietnamSoutheast Asia14,300,00016,024,00014,557,8308,145,000*14,247,593
Hyderabad IndiaSouth Asia11,700,00010,101,0009,455,230*9,482,000*9,706,886*
Istanbul TurkeyEurope
West Asia		16,000,00014,749,00014,210,22214,751,00014,693,269
Jakarta IndonesiaSoutheast Asia29,500,00036,877,00040,545,12610,517,00032,513,588
Jieyang ChinaEast AsiaCombined with
Shantou*		Combined with
Shantou		10,579,303—13,891,202
Johannesburg South AfricaSouthern Africa14,800,00015,026,0008,592,843*5,486,000*9,497,036*
Karachi PakistanSouth Asia21,000,00021,258,00021,031,70315,400,00018,916,709
Kinshasa DR CongoCentral Africa16,300,00013,060,00012,945,68313,171,00010,077,694
Kolkata IndiaSouth Asia17,900,00020,327,00023,314,58514,681,00024,106,859
Lagos NigeriaWest Africa21,300,00015,283,00012,486,04513,463,00012,642,198
Lahore PakistanSouth Asia14,600,00014,256,00014,305,06011,738,00015,696,939
Lima PeruSouth America12,000,00010,914,00010,828,10410,391,00010,496,389
London United KingdomEurope15,100,00011,360,00010,408,3339,046,000*13,475,297
Los Angeles United StatesNorth America17,100,00015,582,00013,474,33312,458,00016,206,529
Luanda AngolaCentral Africa9,650,000*11,892,00011,672,1347,774,000*10,212,263
Metro Manila PhilippinesSoutheast Asia27,800,00025,521,00025,921,18913,482,00027,327,889
Mexico City MexicoNorth America25,400,00018,942,00017,639,16421,581,00019,229,491
Moscow RussiaEurope18,800,00018,509,00014,384,08212,410,00017,217,606
Mumbai IndiaSouth Asia27,600,00026,237,00020,453,27019,980,00023,435,141
Nagoya JapanEast Asia10,500,0009,617,000*7,721,742*9,507,000*9,853,994*
New York City United StatesNorth America21,800,00020,892,00014,197,65918,819,00020,106,617
Osaka JapanEast Asia17,700,00014,998,00012,653,99419,281,00016,866,788
Paris FranceEurope11,500,00011,282,0009,328,385*10,901,00011,249,025
Rhine-Ruhr GermanyEurope10,900,0006,874,000*———
Rio de Janeiro BrazilSouth America13,600,00012,546,0009,853,693*13,293,00011,068,999
São Paulo BrazilSouth America22,600,00021,747,00019,485,15821,650,00021,671,857
Seoul South KoreaEast Asia25,200,00023,825,00022,261,6929,963,000*25,199,125
Shanghai ChinaEast Asia41,600,00045,115,00030,678,61625,582,00030,504,083
Shantou ChinaEast Asia8,050,00012,187,000
Shenzhen ChinaEast AsiaCombined with
Guangzhou		Combined with
Guangzhou		Combined with
Guangzhou		11,908,000Combined with
Guangzhou
Surabaya IndonesiaSoutheast Asia5,950,0006,820,0006,856,993—10,695,358
Suzhou ChinaEast AsiaCombined with
Shanghai		Combined with
Shanghai		11,540,4306,339,000*13,458,006
Taipei TaiwanEast Asia10,100,0009,866,000*9,686,521*—10,048,037
Tehran IranWest Asia16,800,00014,137,0009,363,124*8,896,000*13,563,316
Tianjin ChinaEast Asia11,700,00012,095,0007,330,648*13,215,0008,963,397*
Tokyo JapanEast Asia41,200,00037,325,00033,155,90737,468,00036,697,549
Wuhan ChinaEast Asia12,600,00010,041,0008,079,484*8,176,000*8,947,812*
Xiamen ChinaEast Asia15,400,0006,237,000*1,676,987*3,585,000*4,261,898*
Xi'an ChinaEast Asia13,400,0008,312,000*5,298,991*7,444,000*6,818,858*
Zhengzhou ChinaEast Asia10,300,0006,860,000*5,126,112*4,940,000*6,381,637*

History

The term "megacity" entered common use in the late 19th or early 20th centuries; one of the earliest documented uses of the term was by theUniversity of Texas in 1904.[16] Initially theUnited Nations used the term to describe cities of 8 million or more inhabitants, but now uses the threshold of 10 million.[17] In the mid 1970s the term was coined by urbanist Janice Perlman referring to the phenomenon of very large urban agglomerations.[18]

Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2020

In 1800, only 3% of theworld's population lived in cities, a figure that rose to 47% by the end of the twentieth century. In 1950, there were 83 cities with populations exceeding one million; by 2007, this number had risen to 468,[19] with 153 of them located in Asia. Among the 27 megacities with populations over 10 million globally, 15 were situated in Asia.[20]

In 2010, UN forecasted that urban population of 3.2 billion would rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030, when three out of five, or 60%, of people would live in cities.[21] This increase will be most dramatic on the least-urbanized continents,Asia andAfrica. Surveys and projections indicate that all urban growth over the next 25 years will be indeveloping countries.[22] One billion people, almost one-seventh of the world's population, now live inshanty towns.[23] In many poor countries,overcrowded slums exhibit high rates ofdisease due to unsanitary conditions, malnutrition, and lack of basic health care.[24] By 2030, over 2 billion people in the world will be living inslums.[25] Over 90% of the urban population ofEthiopia,Malawi andUganda, three of the world's most rural countries, already live in slums.

By 2025, Asia alone will have at least 30 megacities, includingMumbai, India (2015 population of 20.75 million people),Shanghai, China (2015 population of 35.5 million people),Delhi, India (2015 population of 21.8 million people),Tokyo,Japan (2015 population of 38.8 million people), andSeoul, South Korea (2015 population of 25.6 million people). The top eight provincial capital cities in China with urban areas exceeding 400 km2—Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Hangzhou, Wuhan, and Xi'an—accounted for 54.8% of the total urban area of all provincial capital cities in the country in 2015.[20]

In Africa,Lagos, Nigeria has grown from 300,000 in 1950 to an estimated 21 million today.

Growth

Gismondi's model of Rome in the time ofConstantine

For almost five hundred years, during the period of theRepublic and later of theEmpire,Rome was thelargest, wealthiest, and most politically important city of the ancient world, rulling over Europe, Western Asia and Northern Africa.[26][self-published source][27] Population estimates of 750,000–1,000,000 people by the end of the 1st century BC are generally given by scholars; however, that would require population densities as high as 72,150 per square kilometre.[28][29] If densities were similar to those in the well-preserved cities of Pompeii and Ostia, the population would be around 500,000.[29] Rome's population started declining in 402 AD whenFlavius Honorius,Western Roman Emperor from 395 to 423, moved the government toRavenna and Rome's population declined to a mere 20,000 during theEarly Middle Ages, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation.

Baghdad was likely the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation in 762 AD until the 930s, with some estimates putting its population at over one million.[30] Chinese capital citiesChang'an andKaifeng also experienced huge population booms during prosperous empires. According to the census in the year 742 recorded in theNew Book of Tang, 362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons were counted inJingzhao Fu (京兆府), themetropolitan area including small cities in the vicinity of Chang'an.[31] The medieval settlement surroundingAngkor, the one-time capital of theKhmer Empire which flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, could have supported a population of up to one million people.[32]

During the 19th century,London was transformed into the world's largest city and capital of theBritish Empire.

From around 1825 to 1918London was the largest city in the world, with the population growing rapidly; it was the first city to reach a population of over 5 million in 1900. In 1950,New York City was the only urban area with a population of over 10 million.[33] Geographers had identified 25 such areas as of October 2005,[34] as compared with 19 megacities in 2004 and only nine in 1985. This increase has happened as the world's population moves towards the high (75–85%) urbanization levels ofNorth America andWestern Europe.

Since the 2000s, the largest megacity has been theGreater Tokyo Area. The population of thisurban agglomeration includes areas such asYokohama andKawasaki, and is estimated to be between 37 and 38 million. This variation in estimates can be accounted for by different definitions of what the area encompasses. While the prefectures ofTokyo,Chiba,Kanagawa, andSaitama are commonly included in statistical information, the Japan Statistics Bureau only includes the area within 50 kilometers of theTokyo Metropolitan Government Offices inShinjuku, thus arriving at a smaller population estimate.[35][36] A characteristic issue of megacities is the difficulty in defining their outer limits and accurately estimating the populations.

Another list defines megacities asurban agglomerations instead of metropolitan areas.[37] As of 2021, there are 28 megacities by this definition, like Tokyo.[38] Other sources listNagoya[9] and theRhine-Ruhr metropolitan region[39] as megacities.

Challenges

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Slums

Mumbai'sDharavi slum is home to 1 million residents.

According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban dwellers living inslums or informal settlements decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent in thedeveloping world between 1990 and 2005.[40] However, due to rising population, the absolute number of slum dwellers is rising and passed 1 billion in 2018.[41] The increase in informal settlement population has been caused by massive migration, both internal and transnational, into cities, which has caused growth rates of urban populations and spatial concentrations not seen before in history.[citation needed] The majority of these are located in informal settlements which often lack sufficient quality housing, sanitation, drainage, water access, and officially recognized addresses. These issues raise problems in the political, social, and economic arenas.[42] People who live in slums or informal settlements often have minimal or no access to education, healthcare, or the urban economy.

Crime

Most murders inRio de Janeiro, Brazil, aregang-related and happen in thefavelas.

As with any large concentration of people, there is usually crime.[43][44] High population densities often result in higher crime rates, as visibly seen in growing megacities such asKarachi,Delhi,Cairo,Rio de Janeiro, andLagos.[45]

Homelessness

Megacities often have significant numbers ofhomeless people. The actual legal definition of homelessness varies from country to country, or among different entities or institutions in the same country or region.[46]

In 2002, research showed that children and families were the largest growing segment of the homeless population in the United States,[47][48] and this has presented new challenges, especially in services, to agencies. In the US, the government asked many major cities to come up with a ten-year plan to end homelessness. One of the results of this was a "Housing first" solution, rather than to have a homeless person remain in an emergency homeless shelter it was thought to be better to quickly get the person permanent housing of some sort and the necessary support services to sustain a new home. But there are many complications with this kind of program and these must be dealt with to make such an initiative work successfully in the middle to long term.[49][50]

Traffic congestion

Bangkok is notorious for its traffic congestion.

Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, increased pollution, and increased vehicularqueueing. TheTexas Transportation Institute estimated that, in 2000, the 75 largest metropolitan areas experienced 3.6 billion vehicle-hours of delay, resulting in 5.7 billion U.S. gallons (21.6 billion liters) in wasted fuel and $67.5 billion in lost productivity, or about 0.7% of the nation'sGDP. It also estimated that the annual cost of congestion for each driver was approximately $1,000 in very large cities and $200 in small cities.[51] Traffic congestion is increasing in major cities and delays are becoming more frequent in smaller cities and rural areas. It also can result in various issues, including economic losses, energy waste, air and noise pollution, and more.[20]

Urban sprawl

A flat land area in theGreater Los Angeles Area in the U.S. state of California with houses, buildings, roads, and freeways. Areas constructed to capacity contribute tourban expansion.

Urban sprawl, also known as suburban sprawl, is a multifaceted concept, which includes the spreading outwards of a city and itssuburbs to its outskirts to low-density, auto-dependent development on rural land, with associated design features that encouragecar dependency.[52] As a result, some critics argue that sprawl has certain disadvantages including longer transport distances to work, highcar dependence, inadequate facilities (e.g. health, cultural. etc.) and higher per-person infrastructure costs. Discussions and debates about sprawl are often obfuscated by the ambiguity associated with the phrase. For example, some commentators measure sprawl only with the average number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well-defined center), discontinuity (leapfrog development), segregation of uses, etc.[53]

Gentrification

Gentrification and urban gentrification are terms for the socio-cultural changes in an area as a result of wealthier people buying property in a less prosperous community.[54] As living costs rise, lower-income residents are forced to move out of the community leading to an increase in average income, which in turn makes the area more desirable to other wealthier property or business owners, further pushing the living costs up. This process also tends to lead to a decrease in average family size in the area. This type of population change reduces industrialland use when it is redeveloped for commerce and housing.

Air pollution

Air pollution inShanghai, China

Air pollution is the introduction into theatmosphere ofchemicals,particulate matter, orbiological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages thenatural environment.[55][56] This issue is particularly prevalent in developing nations. As part of the Global Environment Monitoring System,WHO andUNEP established an air pollution monitoring network that oversees 50 cities.[57] Many urban areas have significant problems withsmog, a type ofair pollution derived fromvehicle emissions frominternal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to formphotochemical smog.[20]

Energy and material resources

The sheer size and complexity of megacities gives rise to enormous social and environmental challenges. Whether megacities can develop sustainably depends to a large extent on how they obtain, share, and manage their energy and material resources. There are correlations betweenelectricity consumption, heating and industrial fuel use,ground transportation energy use,water consumption,waste generation, andsteel production in terms of level of consumption and how efficiently they use resources.[58]

In fiction

Megacities are a common backdrop indystopianscience fiction, with examples such as the Sprawl inWilliam Gibson'sNeuromancer,[59] andMega-City One, a megalopolis of between 50 and 800 million people (fluctuations due to war and disaster) across the east coast of theUnited States, in theJudge Dredd comic.[60] InDemolition Man a megacity called "San Angeles" was formed from the joining ofLos Angeles,Santa Barbara,San Diego and the surrounding metropolitan regions following a massive earthquake in 2010.[61] Fictional planet-wide megacities (ecumenopoleis) includeTrantor inIsaac Asimov'sFoundation series of books andCoruscant (population two trillion) in theStar Wars universe.[62]

See also

References

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