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Thehistory oftheology has manifestations in many different cultures andreligious traditions.
Plato used the Greek wordtheologia (θεολογία) with the meaning "discourse on god" around 380 BCE inRepublic, Book ii, Ch. 18 (379a).[1]
The Latin authorBoethius, writing in the early 6th century, usedtheologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless, incorporeal reality (as opposed tophysica, which deals withcorporeal, moving realities).[2] Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage.[3]
It is in this[which?] last sense - theology as an academic discipline involving the basis of rational study of Christian teaching - that the term passed into English in the fourteenth century.[4]
From the 17th century onwards, it also became possible to use the term "theology" to refer to study of religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian (e.g., in the termnatural theology which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural facts independent of specifically Christian revelation).[5]
"Theology" can also now be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an (impractical or rigid) ideology".[6]
The earliest theological reflections inHinduism are found in theRg Veda, the oldest sacred text. Here, an abstract Supreme Being is acknowledged as self-originating and the source of all phenomena.[7] Vedic gods, includingIndra,Varuna, andVishnu, share common characteristics. They are said to have created the universe, set the sun in the sky, and propped apart heaven and earth. These gods are susceptible to human praise, and their personifications vary.[8]
Hindu theology embracespanentheism, believing that theSupreme Soul (Parmatma) both transcends and pervades the universe. This underlying principle unifies the diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses. While Hinduism appears polytheistic due to its many deities, it is essentially monotheistic, recognising the unity of the divine.[9]
TheBhakti movement (medieval period) emphasized intense devotion to a personal deity. Bhakti theologians likeRamanuja,Madhva, andChaitanya advocated for loving surrender to God. Devotional texts, such as theBhagavad Gita and theRamayana, shaped theological thought by emphasizing devotion, ethics, and the pursuit ofmoksha (liberation).[8]
Shankara, the founder ofAdvaita Vedanta, expounded non-dualism (advaita) by asserting that the individual soul (jivatman) is identical to the Supreme Soul (Brahman). This philosophical theology influenced Hindu thought, emphasizing self-realization and the illusory nature of the material world.[8]
In contemporary Hinduism, theologians engage with issues like social justice, environmental ethics, and interfaith dialogue. Theological reflection continues to evolve, drawing from ancient texts, philosophical traditions, and the lived experiences of practitioners.[10]
Christian theology, inscholastics of theMiddle Age regarded as "the queen of sciences".[11]
The 16th-centuryProtestant Reformation, in the spirit ofRenaissance humanism, paid great attention to the study of biblical text, accompanied by outbursts of popular theology in personalreligious fervor.[12]
Recent Christian theological movements includeLiberation theology,liberal theology, andfundamentalism.
From the late 19th century onward, Islamic theology adapted to changing contexts. Scholars in Arab countries,Turkey,Iran,India,Central Asia, andIndonesia, explored diverse theological perspectives. Modern theologians grappled with issues like secularism, pluralism, and the compatibility of Islamic teachings with contemporary life.[13]
[...] in the medieval scholastic world, theology was defined as the "Queen of Sciences" [...].
In the Middle Ages, as at all times, popular theology had on many points outrun authorised theology: the fifteenth century was overladen both in bold speculations and practical details by the results of past generations.
Theology public domain audiobook atLibriVox| Conceptions of God |
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