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Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing essentially all written works available inEurope and beyond during theMiddle Ages (that is, the one thousand years from thefall of the Western Roman Empire ca. AD 500 to the beginning of theRenaissance in the 14th, 15th or 16th century, depending on country).[1] The literature of this time was composed of religious writings as well as secular works. Like modern literature, it is a broad field of study, from the utterly sacred to the exuberantly profane, touching all points in between. Works of literature are often grouped by place of origin, language, and genre.
Outside of Europe, medieval literature was written inEthiopic,Syriac,Coptic,Japanese,Chinese, andArabic, among many other languages.
In Western Europe, Latin was the common language for medieval writing, sinceLatin was the language of theRoman Catholic Church, which dominatedWestern andCentral Europe, and since the Church was virtually the only source of education. This was the case even in some parts of Europe that were never Romanized.
InEastern Europe, the influence of theEastern Roman Empire and theEastern Orthodox Church madeGreek andOld Church Slavonic the dominant written languages.
In Europe the common people used their respectivevernaculars. A few examples, such as theOld EnglishBeowulf, theMiddle High GermanNibelungenlied, theMedieval GreekDigenis Acritas, theOld East SlavicTale of Igor's Campaign, and theOld FrenchChanson de Roland, are well known to this day. Although the extant versions of theseepics are generally considered the works of individual (butanonymous) poets, there is no doubt that they are based on their peoples' older oral traditions.Celtic traditions have survived in thelais ofMarie de France, theMabinogion and theArthurian cycles. Another host of vernacular literature has survived in theOld Norse literature and more specifically in thesaga literature ofIceland.
A notable proportion of medieval literature isanonymous. The lack of information about authors is due in part to the paucity of documents from this period but also to a medieval conception of theauthor's role which differs considerably from modern views on authorship (which come from theRomantics). Medieval authors often deeply respectedclassical writers and theChurch Fathers and tended to retell and embellish stories they had heard or read rather than invent new stories.[2] And even when they did invent, they often claimed to be handing down something from anauctor instead. In this light, the names of the authors themselves seemed much less important, and as a result many important works were never properly attributed.
Theological works were the dominant form of literature typically found in libraries during the Middle Ages.Catholic clerics were the intellectual center of society in the Middle Ages, and it is their literature that was produced in the greatest quantity.
Countlesshymns survive from this period (bothliturgical and paraliturgical). The liturgy itself was not in fixed form, and numerous competing missals set out themass in varying orders. Religious scholars such asAnselm of Canterbury,Thomas Aquinas, andPierre Abélard wrote lengthytheological andphilosophical treatises, often attempting to reconcile the teachings of the Greek and Roman pagan authors with the doctrines of the Church.Hagiographies, or "lives of the saints", were also frequently written, as an encouragement to the devout and a warning to the wayward.
TheGolden Legend ofJacobus de Voragine reached such popularity that, in its time, it was reportedly read more often than theBible.Francis of Assisi was a prolific poet, and hisFranciscan followers frequently wrote poetry themselves as an expression of their piety.Dies Irae andStabat Mater are two of the most powerful Latin poems on religious subjects.Goliardic poetry (four-line stanzas of satiric verse) was an art form used by some clerics to express dissent. The only widespread religious writing that was not produced by clerics were themystery plays: growing out of simpletableaux re-enactments of a single Biblical scene, each mystery play became its village's expression of the key events in theBible. The text of these plays was often controlled by localguilds, and performances were held regularly on set feast-days, often lasting all day long and into the night.
During the Middle Ages, theJewish population of Europe also produced a number of outstanding writers.Maimonides (born inCordoba, Spain) andRashi (born inTroyes,France) are two of the best-known and most influential of theseJewish authors.
Secular literature in this period was produced in smaller volume than religious literature. The earliest tales originate from oral traditions: the BritishY Gododdin andPreiddeu Annwfn, along with the GermanicBeowulf andNibelungenlied. They recount myths or events of the distant past (6th century), with the surviving manuscripts dating from centuries later—Y Gododdin from the late 13th century,Preiddu Annwfn from the early 14th century,Beowulf fromc. 1000, and theNibelungenlied from the 13th century. The makers and performers werebards (British/Welsh) andscops (Germanic), elite professionals attached to royal or noble courts to praise the heroes of legendary history.
Prose tales first emerged in Britain: the intricateFour Branches of theMabinogi about princely families, notably anti-war in theme, and the romantic adventureCulhwch and Olwen. (TheMabinogi is not the same as theMabinogion, a collection of disconnected prose tales, which does, however, include both theMabinogi andCulhwch and Olwen.) These works were compiled from earlier oral traditionc. 1100.
At about the same time a new poetry of "courtly love" became fashionable in Europe. Traveling singers—troubadours andtrouvères—made a living from their love songs inFrench,Spanish,Galician-Portuguese,Catalan,Provençal, andGreek. Germanic culture had itsMinnesänger tradition. The songs of courtly love often express unrequited longing for an ideal woman, but there are alsoaubades (dawn farewells by lovers) and humorous ditties.
Following the earliest epic poems, prose tales, and romances, more long poems were crafted—thechansons de geste of the late 11th and early 12th centuries. These extolled conquests, as inThe Song of Roland (part of theMatter of France) andDigenis Acritas (one of theAcritic songs). The rather differentchivalric romance tradition concerns adventures about marvels, love, and chivalry. They tell of theMatter of Britain and theMatter of Rome.
Political poetry threads throughout the period from the very earlyArmes Prydein (10th-century Britain) to thegoliard rebels of 12th and 13th centuries, who were church trained clerics unable or unwilling to be employed in the church.
Travel literature was widely read in the Middle Ages, as fantastic accounts of far-off lands (frequently embellished or entirely false) entertained a society that supported sea voyages and trading along coasts and rivers, as well aspilgrimages (toJerusalem,Canterbury,Glastonbury,St. David's, andSantiago de Compostela).Geoffrey Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales, a prime example of the genre, became popular at the end of the 14th century.
The most prominent authors ofJewish secular poetry in the Middle Ages wereSolomon ibn Gabirol andYehuda Halevi, both of whom were also renowned religious poets.
While it is true that women in the medieval period were never accorded full equality with men, some women were able to use their skill with the written word to gain renown. Religious writing was the easiest avenue—women who would later be canonized assaints frequently published their reflections, revelations, and prayers. Much of what is known aboutwomen in the Middle Ages is known from the works ofnuns such asClare of Assisi,Bridget of Sweden, andCatherine of Siena.
Frequently, however, the religious views of women were held to be unorthodox by those in power, who were less accepting of those features of medieval life which came to light through the mystical visions ofJulian of Norwich,Mechthild of Magdeburg, andHildegard of Bingen, to name a few. Women wrote influential texts in the secular realm as well—reflections on courtly love and society byMarie de France andChristine de Pizan continue to be studied for their accounts of medieval society.
Some women were patrons of books and owners of significant book collections. Female book collectors in the fifteenth century includedAlice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk;Cecily Neville, Duchess of York; andLady Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby. Lady Margaret Beaufort may also have completed translations as a testament to her piety, as Bishop Father John Fisher noted in a sermon dedicated to her after her death.[3]
For modern historical reflection, D.H. Green'sWomen Readers of the Middle Ages (2007) examines the ways in which medieval women engaged with the literature of the time.[4] The study has been reviewed as "a radical reassessment of women's contribution to medieval literary culture."[5]
While medieval literature features manyliterary devices,allegory is so prominent in this period as to deserve special mention. Much of medieval literature employed allegory to impart moral lessons, and is thick with allegorical representations of abstract qualities, events, and institutions. Probably the earliest and most influential allegory is thePsychomachia (Battle of Souls) byAurelius Clemens Prudentius. Other important examples include theRomance of the Rose,Everyman,Piers Plowman, theRoman de Fauvel, and theDivine Comedy.
A recent study estimated that only about 68 percent of all medieval works have survived to the present day, including fewer than 40 percent ofEnglish works, around 50 percent ofDutch andFrench works, and more than three quarters ofGerman,Icelandic, andIrish works.[6]
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