Thehistory of Thessaly covers the history of the region ofThessaly in north-centralGreece from antiquity to the present day.
Thessaly is characterized by the largeThessalian plain, formed by thePineios River, which is surrounded by mountains, most notably thePindus mountain range to the west, which separates Thessaly fromEpirus.[1] Only two passes, thePorta pass and, in the summer, the pass ofMetsovo, connect the two regions. From the south, the narrow coastal pass ofThermopylae connects Thessaly with southern Greece.[1] In the north Thessaly borders onMacedonia, either through the coast or the pass ofServia towardsThessalonica, or in the northwest towards western Macedonia.[1]
The first evidence of human habitation inThessaly dates to the latePaleolithic, but in the earlyNeolithic this expanded rapidly. Over 400 archaeological sites dating to the period are known, including fortified ones. The most notable of these is atSesklo.[2] During theMycenaean period, the main settlement was atIolcos, as attested in the later legends ofJason and theArgonauts.[2]
A distinct Thessalian tribal identity and culture first began to form from the 9th century BC on as a mixture of the local population and immigrants from Epirus, first in the region of thePelasgiotis, withPherae as its main centre.[2] From there they quickly expanded inland to the plain of the Pineios and towards theMalian Gulf.[2] The Thessalians spoke a distinct form ofAeolic Greek.[2] In the late 7th century BC, the Thessalians conquered the so-calledperioikoi. In this process the Thessalians capturedAnthela and came to control the localamphictyony. By assuming the former share of theperioikoi in theDelphic Amphictyony, the Thessalians also came to play a leading role in the latter, providing 14 of the 24hieromnemones and presiding over thePythian Games.[2] As a result of theFirst Sacred War (595–585 BC), the Thessalians briefly extended their sway overPhocis as well, but the Boeotians drove them back after the battles ofHyampolis andCeressus in the mid-6th century.[2]
In the second half of the 7th century, Thessaly became the home of large aristocratic families, controlling huge tracts of land and working them withserfs (penestae), which became a characteristic of Thessaly. The most important were theAleuadae ofLarissa, theEchecratidae ofPharsalus, and theScopadae ofCrannon. Their clan chiefs were often calledbasileis ("kings").[2] It was Aleuas Pyrrhos ("the Red") who cemented the aristocracy's predominance by reforming the Thessalian League on the basis of the "tetrads" (quadripartite division), linking it with the noble-controlledkleroi ("land lots") obliged to supply 40 horsemen and 80 infantrymen each.[2] Traditionally, the office oftagus has been regarded as the senior magistrate of the Thessalian League; more recent studies however regard thetagus as a purely local official, and suggest thetetrarches as the head of the League.[2]
In the summer of 480 BC, thePersiansinvaded Thessaly. The Greek army that guarded theVale of Tempe evacuated the road before the enemy arrived. Not much later, Thessaly surrendered. The Thessalian family ofAleuadae joined the Persians. In thePeloponnesian War the Thessalians tended to side withAthens and usually preventedSpartan troops from crossing through their territory with the exception of the army ofBrasidas. In the 4th century BC Thessaly became dependent onMacedon. In the 2nd century BC, as with the rest of Greece, Thessaly came under the control of theRoman Republic.[citation needed]
From 27 BC it formed part of theRoman province ofAchaea, with capital atCorinth.[3] In the reign of EmperorAntoninus Pius (r. 138–161), Thessaly was separated from Achaea and given to the province ofMacedonia; eventually it became a separate province.[4] In the new administrative system as it evolved underDiocletian (r. 284–305) and his successors, Thessaly was a separate province within theDiocese of Macedonia, in thepraetorian prefecture of Illyricum.[4] With the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Thessaly remained as a part of theEast Roman (Byzantine) Empire.[4]
Being far from the Empire's frontiers, and of little strategic importance, Greece lacked any serious fortifications or permanently stationed garrisons, a situation that lasted until the 6th century and led to much devastation by barbarian raids.[4] Thus in 395–397, as most of Greece, Thessaly was occupied by theVisigoths underAlaric, until they were driven out byStilicho.[4][5] TheVandals underGeiseric raided the coasts of Greece in the period 466–475, and in 473 theOstrogoths underTheodemir advanced into Thessaly and captured Larissa before EmperorLeo I gave in and allowed him and his people to settle in Macedonia.[6] Under Theodemir's son,Theodoric the Great, the Ostrogoths once more invaded Thessaly in 482, until they left for Italy in 488.[6] According to theSynecdemus, in the 6th century the province included 16 cities along the capital, Larissa:Demetrias,Phthiotic Thebes,Echinos,Lamia,Hypata, Metropolis,Trikke,Gomphoi,Caesarea,Diocletianopolis,Pharsalus,Saltos Bouramesios,Saltos Iovios, and the islands ofSkiathos,Skopelos andPeparisthos.[6][1]
From the reign ofJustin I (r. 518–527) on, attacks on the imperial frontier on theDanube became more and more frequent, and the Balkan provinces were heavily raided, although Greece was less affected. In 539, however, a largeHunnic raid plundered Thessaly and, bypassing the fortifiedThermopylae pass, devastatedCentral Greece.[7] This led to a serious fortification effort underJustinian I (r. 527–565), and the establishment of a permanent garrison at Thermopylae. The area was once more invaded in 558 by theKotrigurs, but they were stopped at the Thermopylae.[7] Despite the devastation caused by these raids, in Thessaly, and southern Greece in general, the imperial administration seems to have continued to function, and traditional public life to have continued, for much of the century, possibly up to the end of the reign ofJustin II (r. 565–578).[8] Nevertheless, the barbarian raids, the two great earthquakes of 522 and 552, and the arrival of thePlague of Justinian in 541–544, led to a drop in population.[9]
Thelate antique order on Greece was irrevocably shattered with theSlavic incursions that began after 578. The first large-scale raid was in 581, and the Slavs appear to have remained in Greece until 584. Byzantium, confronted bylong and bloody wars withSassanid Persia in the east, and with theAvar Khaganate in the north, was largely unable to stop these raids. After the murder of EmperorMaurice in 602 and the outbreak of the greatByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, theDanube frontier, somewhat stabilized under Maurice, collapsed entirely, leaving the Balkans defenceless for the Slavs to raid and settle.[10] The Slavic settlement that followed the raids in the late 6th and early 7th centuries affected thePeloponnese in the south and Macedonia in the north far more than Thessaly or Central Greece, with the fortified towns largely remaining in the hands of the native Greek population.[11] Nevertheless, in the first decades of the 7th century the Slavs were free to raid Thessaly and further south relatively unhindered; according to theMiracles of Saint Demetrius, inc. 615 the Slavic tribes even builtmonoxyla and raided the coasts of Thessaly and many Aegean islands, depopulating many of them.[12] Five of Thessaly's cities disappear from the sources during the 7th century, and Slavs settled in the northern and northeastern parts of the country.[1] EmperorConstans II (r. 641–668) undertook in 658 the first attempt to restore imperial rule, and although his campaign was mostly carried out in the northern Aegean coast, it seems to have led to a relative pacification of the Slavic tribes in southern Greece as well, at least for a few years.[13] Thus during the great Slavicsiege of Thessalonica inc. 676–678 the tribe of theBelegezitai, who according to theMiracles of Saint Demetrius were settled around Demetrias and Phthiotic Thebes, provided the besieged city with grain.[13]
The parts of Thessaly that remained in imperial hands after the Slavic invasions—apparently the Aegean coast and the area around thePagasetic Gulf—came under thetheme ofHellas. This was established between 687 and 695, and comprised the eastern coasts of mainland Greece, and possibly the Peloponnese, as well asEuboea and a few other islands. Itsstrategos was probably based in (Boeotian)Thebes.[14][15] Given its lack of depth into thehinterland, the theme was originally probably oriented mostly towards the sea and was of a mostly maritime character, as seen during the anti-iconoclastrevolt of 726/7.[16] Some time between 730 and 751, the Church in Thessaly, along with the rest of the Illyricum, were transferred from the jurisdiction of thePope inRome to that of thePatriarch of Constantinople.[17]
Like much of northern Greece, Thessaly suffered from raids by theBulgarians, beginning in 773.[18] At the same time, due to conflict between the Bulgarian ruling class and the Slavic population which led to an exodus from the latter, a second wave of Slavic settlement engulfed Greece fromc. 746/7 on. Unlike the first wave of settlement, this does not seem to have disrupted imperial control in the areas where it had been (re-)established.[19] In 783, however, the eunuch ministerStaurakios led a large-scale campaign across Greece fromThessalonica to the Peloponnese, subduing the local Slavs and forcing them to acknowledge imperial overlordship.[20][21] Despite continued raids by the Bulgarians andSaracen pirates—Demetrias was sacked byDamian of Tarsus in 902 and Thessaly and much of Central Greece devastated by Bulgarian raids in 918 and 923–926[22]—Thessaly, and Greece in general, recovered gradually after Byzantine control was firmly re-established, and there are signs of renewed prosperity and economic activity.[23] Especially in Thessaly, this process manifested itself in the appearance of at least nine new cities, includingHalmyros andStagoi, and the resettlement of older ones, such as Zetounion (ancient Lamia).[23][24][25]
During the course of the 10th century, the Saracen threat receded and was practically ended as the result of theByzantine reconquest of Crete in 960–961.[26] The threat from Bulgaria remained, however, and in 986, during his wars withBasil II (r. 976–1025), the Bulgarian tsarSamuel sacked the city of Larissa and occupied Thessaly. The Bulgarian ruler undertook another large-scale expedition through the province and into the Peloponnese in 997, but on his return he suffered a devastating defeat at theBattle of Spercheios.[27][28] In the early 11th century, Thessaly was separated from Hellas and joined to thetheme of Thessalonica. TheSpercheios valley however remained part of Hellas, with the new border running along theOthrys–Agrafa line.[26] The region enjoyed a long period of peace at this time, interrupted only by raids during theuprising of Petar Delyan (1040–1041), plundering by theUzès in 1064, and the briefNorman attack into Thessaly in 1082–1083, which was beaten back by EmperorAlexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118).[28] TheVlachs are first mentioned in Thessaly during the 11th century, in theStrategikon of Kekaumenos andAnna Komnene'sAlexiad.[29] In the 12th century, the Jewish travelerBenjamin of Tudela recorded the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros, while the Byzantine historianNiketas Choniates placed a "Great Vlachia" nearMeteora. The term is also used by the 13th-century scholarGeorge Pachymeres, and it appears as a distinct administrative unit in 1276, when thepinkernes Raoul Komnenos was its governor (kephale). Thessalian Vlachia was apparently also known as "Vlachia in Hellas".[30]
In the aftermath of the failed Norman invasion, Alexios I granted the first trading privileges to theRepublic of Venice, including immunity from taxation and the right to establish trade colonies in certain towns; in Thessaly, this was Demetrias. These concessions signalled the beginning of the ascendancy of theItalian maritime republics in maritime commerce and their gradual takeover of the Byzantine economy. Alexios' successors tried to curb these privileges with mixed success, but in 1198Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) was forced to concede even more extensive ones, allowing the Venetians to create trade stations at Vlachia, the "two Halmyroi", Grebenikon, Pharsalus, Domokos, Vesaina,Ezeros,Dobrochouvista, Trikala, Larissa, andPlatamon.[31][32]
Sometime in the 12th century, Thessaly reverted to Hellas, with the exception of the northwestern portion around Stagoi and Trikala, which was included in the new theme ofServia.[33] Benjamin of Tudela, who visited the area in 1165, also recorded the presence of Jewish communities at Halmyros, Zetounion, Vesaina, andGardiki.[1][32] Both Benjamin and the Arab geographeral-Idrisi describe Greece during the middle of the 12th century as densely populated and prosperous.[32] The situation began to change towards the end of the reign ofManuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), whose costly military ventures led to a hike in taxation. Coupled with the corruption and autocratic behaviour of officials, this led to a decline in industry and the impoverishment of the peasantry, eloquently lamented by theMetropolitan of Athens,Michael Choniates. This decline was temporarily halted underAndronikos I Komnenos (r. 1182–1185), who sent the capableNikephoros Prosouch as governor to Greece, but resumed after Andronikos' fall.[34] In 1199–1201Manuel Kamytzes, the rebellious son-in-law of Byzantine emperorAlexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203), with the support ofDobromir Chrysos, the autonomous ruler ofProsek, established a short-lived principality in northern Thessaly, before he was overcome by an imperial expedition.[35][36]
By the end of the 12th century, the theme of Hellas had been superseded by a collection of smaller districts variously termedhoria (sing.horion),chartoularata (sing.chartoularaton), andepiskepseis (sing.episkepsis). This division is reflected in the 1198chrysobull of Alexios III to the Venetians, and in thePartitio Romaniae of 1204. These documents mention theepiskepseis (domains of the imperial family) of Platamon, Demetrias, the "two Halmyroi", Krevennika and Pharsalus, Domokos and Vesaina, thehorion of Larissa and the "provinces" of Vlachia, Servia, andVelechativa, and thechartoularata of Dobrochouvista and Ezeros (Sthlanitsa in thePartitio), the latter evidently Slavic settlements.[37]
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Following thesack of Constantinople and the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by theFourth Crusade in April 1204,Leo Sgouros, the Greek ruler ofNauplia, marched into central Greece. At Larissa he met the deposed Alexios III, and concluded a marriage alliance with him. Both were soon confronted by the Crusaders underBoniface of Montferrat, who sought to expand his newly establishedKingdom of Thessalonica into southern Greece. Unable to challenge the Crusaders in open battle, Sgouros gave up Thessaly without a fight, and withdrew to his bases in the Peloponnese.[36][38] Boniface divided the captured lands among his followers: Platamon went to Rolando Piscia, Larissa and Halmyros to the Lombard Guglielmo, andVelestino toBerthold of Katzenellenbogen, while further south in Central GreeceBodonitza went toGuido Pallavicini,Gravia toJacques de Saint Omer,Salona toThomas d'Autremencourt, Thebes to the brothers Albertino and Rolando Canossa,Athens toOthon de la Roche, and Euboea (Negroponte) toJacques d'Avesnes.[39] The boundaries of the actual Kingdom of Thessalonica seem to have extended only up to Domokos, Pharsalus, and Velestino: the Spercheios valley in southern Thessaly, with the towns of Zetounion andRavennika, was under governors appointed by theLatin Emperor.[40]
In 1212, however,Michael I Komnenos Doukas (r. 1205–1214/5), ruler of the independent Greek state ofEpirus, led his troops into Thessaly, overrunning the resistance of the local Lombard nobles. Larissa and much of central Thessaly came under Epirote rule, thereby separating Thessalonica from the Crusader principalities in southern Greece.[41] Michael's work was completed by his half-brother and successor,Theodore Komnenos Doukas (r. 1215–1230), who byc. 1222/3 completed the recovery of the entire region except for Halmyros, which remained in Latin hands until 1246.[42][43] Eventually, in December 1224, Theodore conquered Thessalonica as well. Soon thereafter he declared himself emperor, founding theEmpire of Thessalonica.[44] The region remained attached to Thessalonica until 1239, when the deposed ruler of ThessalonicaManuel Komnenos Doukas captured it from his nephewJohn Komnenos Doukas and secured its status as a separate section of the family holdings.[45] Upon his death in 1241, the area quickly, and apparently without resistance, came under the control of the ruler of Epirus,Michael II Komnenos Doukas (r. 1230–1268).[46] Following theBattle of Pelagonia in 1259, Thessaly was occupied by theEmpire of Nicaea, but an Epirote counter-offensive in spring 1260 underNikephoros I Komnenos Doukas defeated the Nicaean generalAlexios Strategopoulos and recovered most of the province, except perhaps for part of the Aegean coast aroundVolos, which possibly remained in Nicaean hands for several years thereafter.[47]
On the death of Michael II in 1267/8, his dominions were divided between Nikephoros, who received Epirus proper, and Michael's illegitimate sonJohn Doukas (r. 1267/8–1289), who was married to a Thessalian Vlach princess, received Thessaly.[48][49][50] Although separated politically, Thessaly continued to share many similarities with the parent state of Epirus: both were reluctant to acknowledge the revivedPalaiologos-led Byzantine Empire and its imperial pretensions, both established close ties with the Latin states of southern Greece in an attempt to maintain their independence, while at the same time being threatened by them and forced to cede territory to them. Both were eventually reunified under the Byzantines in the 1330s and the Serbians shortly after.[51]
From his capital at Neopatras, John I Doukas governed Thessaly as a virtually independent state.[52][a] Although he recognized the suzerainty of the Byzantine emperorMichael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282), receiving the title ofsebastokrator in exchange, John I Doukas maintained a consistent anti-Palaiologan stance. In this conflict he allied himself with Latin powers, namelyCharles of Anjou and theDuchy of Athens.[1][57] Michael VIII's attempts to form a union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches, culminating in theSecond Council of Lyon in 1274, were another point of friction. John portrayed himself as a champion of Orthodoxy, offering refuge to pro-Unionists and convoking a synod at his capitalNeopatras in 1276/7 to condemn the Union.[57][58][59] Sometime in 1273–75 (the date is disputed by scholars) Michael VIII dispatched a large army against John under his own brother,John Palaiologos. The Byzantine army advanced rapidly through Thessaly and blockaded John with a few of his men at Neopatras, which was placed under siege. John managed to evade the Byzantines and secure aid from Athens, with which he routed the Byzantine army at theBattle of Neopatras.[58][60][61] In exchange for this aid, however, John gave his daughterHelena to the future Duke of AthensWilliam de la Roche (r. 1280–1287), with the towns of Zetounion, Gardiki, Gravia, andSiderokastron as a dowry.[57][61] In addition, the fleeing Byzantine troops were able to reach Demetrias and help their fleet secure adevastating victory against the Lombard lords of Euboea.[62][63] A further Byzantine expedition in 1277 against John wasequally unsuccessful.[64] Finally, in 1282 Michael VIII in person campaigned against John, but fell ill and died on the way.[65]
Nevertheless, after John's death, his widow was compelled to recognize the suzerainty of Michael VIII's successor,Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) to safeguard the position of her underage sonsConstantine andTheodore.[57] Thus the Byzantines were allowed passage through Thessaly to invade Epirus in 1290, but soon after the two princes started conspiring with the Serbians of KingMilutin against Byzantium. In 1295 the brothers invaded Epirus themselves and seizedNaupaktos, but no further gains appear to have been made.[57][66] Both Constantine and Theodore died in 1303, leaving Thessaly to the young son of Constantine,John II Doukas. As he too was underage, Constantine had named the Duke of Athens,Guy II de la Roche (r. 1287–1308), as his regent and guardian.[66][67] John II continued his grandfather's pro-Latin policy, maintaining particularly close relations with theVenetians, who imported agricultural produce from Thessaly.[1]
In 1308, Guy II de la Roche died. John II Doukas seized the opportunity to sever his dependency on Athens, and turned to Byzantium for support.[68] In early 1309, theCatalan Company, in conflict with the Byzantines, crossed from Macedonia into Thessaly. The arrival of the marauding Company, some 8,000 strong, alarmed John II Doukas. Defeated by the Greeks, the Catalans agreed to pass peacefully through Thessaly to the south, towards the Frankish principalities of southern Greece.[69] After seizing the Spercheios Valley and capturing Salona,[70] the new Duke of Athens,Walter of Brienne, hired the Company for service against Thessaly. Turning back, the Catalans captured Zetounion, Halmyros, Domokos and some thirty other fortresses, and plundered the rich plain of Thessaly, forcing the John Doukas to come to terms with Walter.[71][72] Walter however tried to backtrack on his deal with the Catalans, leading to open conflict. In theBattle of Halmyros on 15 March 1311, the Catalans crushed the Athenian army, killing Walter and most of the leading nobles of Frankish Greece. After the battle, the Catalan Company proceeded to occupy the defenceless duchy.[73][74]
The Catalans continued for a while to hold the parts of southern Thessaly they had occupied and raided the region in the following years, while John Doukas' authority was increasingly enfeebled in Thessaly itself at the expense of the large landholders, who became virtually autonomous, maintaining their own, independent contacts with the Byzantine court. As a result, probablyc. 1315, John too was forced to formalize his relations with the Byzantines, recognizing the Empire's suzerainty and marrying Irene Palaiologina, the illegitimate daughter of EmperorAndronikos II Palaiologos.[75] When John Doukas died in 1318, the southern part of Thessaly was quickly captured by the Catalans of Athens. Between 1318 and 1325, the Catalans took Neopatras, Zetounion,Loidoriki, Siderokastron, andVitrinitsa, as well as—apparently briefly—Domokos, Gardiki, and Pharsalus. This territory formed the new, Catalan-dominatedDuchy of Neopatras.[76][75] Venice also took advantage of the anarchy in Thessaly to acquire the port ofPteleos.[77] The central and northern part of Thessaly remained in Greek hands. Lacking a central authority, however, the area fractured among competing rulers. The north came under control of the Byzantines from Thessalonica, while in the centre three rival magnates,Stephen Gabrielopoulos of Trikala, a certain Signorinos, and the Melissenos, or rather Maliasenos, family in the east around Volos, emerged. Gabrielopoulos was the most successful of the three, and soon managed to gain recognition of his rule by the Byzantine court, which granted him the title ofsebastokrator. The Maliasenoi on the other hand seem to have turned to the Catalans for support.[76][78] With the loss of Neopatras and the rise of Gabrielopoulos, Trikala became the new political centre of Thessaly.[79] At about the same time, larger groups of Albanians, such as the tribes of theMalakasioi,Bouoi, andMesaritai, began to raid and settle in Thessaly, although smaller groups of Albanians may have been present in the region already from the late 12th century.[77]
When Gabrielopoulos died inc. 1333, the Epirote rulerJohn II Orsini (r. 1323–1335) tried to take advantage of the situation and seize his lands, but the Byzantines underAndronikos III Palaiologos (r. 1328–1341) moved in and established direct control over the northern and western part of the region. Andronikos himself made agreements with thetranshumant Albanian tribesmen of thePindus mountains and appointedMichael Monomachos as governor of the region. It is unclear over which parts of Thessaly Byzantine control was restored:John Kantakouzenos claims that the campaign restored the old Epirote–Thessalian border (i.e. the Pindus mountains), while the modern researcherBožidar Ferjančić suggests that the Byzantines recovered eastern and central Thessaly, but that the western part remained under Epirote rule until Orsini's death three years later, when this area too came under Byzantine control.[80][81]
The successful Byzantine reconquest was led by Andronikos III's friend and chief aide, John Kantakouzenos. Thus when theByzantine civil war of 1341–47 broke out between Kantakouzenos and the regency for the underageJohn V Palaiologos, Thessaly and Epirus quickly rallied to his side. Kantakouzenos' cousin,John Angelos, ruled the two regions until his death in 1348, whereupon they fell to the expandingSerbian Empire ofStefan Dushan.[82] Dushan appointed his generalGregory Preljub as governor of Thessaly, which he ruled, probably from Trikala, until his death in late 1355 or early 1356.[83] In 1350, Kantakouzenos, now emperor, launched an attempt to reconquer Thessaly, but after capturing the towns of Lykostomion and Kastrion, he faltered beforeServia, which was defended by Preljub himself. Kantakouzenos withdrew, and Lykostomion and Kastrion were recovered by the Serbs soon after.[84] Preljub's rule is otherwise obscure, except for his reaching an agreement with the local Albanian tribes; an agreement that probably did not last long, for he was killed in a clash with them.[84]
The death of Preljub was preceded by that of Dushan himself, leaving a power vacuum in the wider Serbian Empire and in Thessaly in particular. In this context,Nikephoros Orsini, the exiled son of John II Orsini, who had entered Byzantine service, tried to realize his ancestral claims over the region. FromAinos, he sailed to Thessaly, which he captured quickly, expelling Preljub's wife and son. He then conqueredAetolia,Acarnania, andLeukas.[85] Catalan control over southern Thessaly had ceased by this time.[86] Nikephoros came into conflict with the Albanians, however, and was killed in theBattle of Achelous in 1359.[87] Following Nikephoros' death, Thessaly was taken over without resistance by Dushan's half-brotherSimeon Uroš. Enjoying the support of the local Greek and Serbian nobility, Simeon Uroš reigned as self-proclaimed emperor from Trikala until his death in 1370. He was particularly noted as a patron of theMeteora monasteries, who regarded him as their "second founder".[88] His sonJohn Uroš succeeded him until 1373, when he retired to a monastery; Thessaly was then ruled byAlexios Angelos Philanthropenos and (fromc. 1388)Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, who recognized Byzantine suzerainty untilc. 1393, when the region was conquered by theOttoman Empire.[89] In the south, the Florentine adventurerNerio Acciaioli had managed to take over the Duchy of Athens from the Catalans, and in 1390 captured Neopatras as well. These territories were soon lost to the Ottoman Turks, at about the same time as the fall of Thessaly.[90]
The Ottomans first invaded Thessaly in 1386, whenGazi Evrenos captured Larissa for a time, confining the Angeloi Philanthropenoi to their holdings in western Thessaly, around Trikala. In ca. 1393, the second phase of the invasion began, again under Evrenos. The Ottomans defeated Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, and reconquered Larissa. The conquest of Thessaly was completed during the next few years, from 1394 on under the personal supervision of SultanBayezid I. The fortresses of Volos, Pharsalus, Domokos and Neopatras were taken, and in 1395/6, Trikala too fell.
After the disastrousBattle of Ankara in 1402, the weakened Ottomans wereforced to return the eastern coasts of Thessaly and the region of Zetounion to Byzantine rule.[91] In 1423, renewed Ottoman pressure forced the local Byzantine commander to surrender the forts ofStylida andAvlaki to the Venetians. By 1444, the entire region had been finally conquered by the Turks. Pteleos alone remained in Venetian hands until 1470.[91]
The newly conquered region was initially the patrimonial domain of the powerfulmarcher-lordTurahan Bey (died 1456) and of his sonÖmer Bey (died 1484) rather than a regular province.[92] Turahan and his heirs brought in settlers from Anatolia (the so-called "Konyalis" or "Koniarides" since most were from the region aroundKonya) to repopulate the sparsely inhabited area, and soon, Muslim settlers or converts dominated the lowlands, while the Christians held the mountains around the Thessalian plain.[93] The area was generally peaceful, but banditry was endemic, and led to the creation of the first state-sanctioned Christian autonomies known asarmatoliks, the earliest and most notable of which was that ofAgrafa. Failed Greek uprisings occurred in1600/1 and 1612, and during theMorean War (1684–1699) and theOrlov Revolt (1770).[93]
After 1780, the ambitiousAli Pasha of Ioannina took over control of Thessaly, and consolidated his rule after 1808, when he suppressed a local uprising. His heavy taxation, however, ruined the province's commerce, and coupled with the outbreak of the plague in 1813, reduced the population to some 200,000 by 1820.[93] When theGreek War of Independence broke out in 1821, Greek risings occurred in thePelion andOlympus mountains as well as the western mountains around Fanari, but they were swiftly suppressed by the Ottoman armies underMehmed Reshid Pasha andMahmud Dramali Pasha.[93] After the establishment of the independentKingdom of Greece, Greek nationalist agitation continued, with further revolts in 1841, in 1854 during theCrimean War, and again during theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The uprising in the period of 1878 resulted simultaneously with other unrest, but despite this, the Ottoman government quickly and decisively suppressed it after the battle of Mount Pelion.[94] Thessaly remained in Ottoman hands until 1881, when it was handed over to Greece under the terms of theConvention of Constantinople.[93]
After union with Greece, Thessaly became divided into fourprefectures:Larissa Prefecture,Magnesia Prefecture,Karditsa Prefecture, andTrikala Prefecture. In 1897, the region was overrun by the Ottomans during the briefGreco-Turkish War of 1897. The Ottoman army withdrew after the war's end, but minor territorial adjustments were made to the frontier in the Ottomans' favour. The early decades of Greek rule in Thessaly were dominated by the agricultural issue, as the area retained its Ottoman-era large landholdings (chifliks), and the landlords enjoyed great influence, essentially reducing their tenant farmers to serfdom. The tensions culminated in theKileler uprising of March 1910. The problem was finally settled through the wide-rangingland redistribution campaign undertaken by the governments ofEleftherios Venizelos.
DuringWorld War I, during theNational Schism in 1916–17, Thessaly served as a buffer zone between the pro-EntenteProvisional Government of National Defence, led by Venizelos in Thessaloniki, and the royal, pro-Central Powers government in Athens. DuringWorld War II the area was occupied by the Italian army in 1941–43, and by the Germans in 1943–44. It became a major centre of theGreek Resistance, most famously seeing the desertion of the ItalianPinerolo Division to the guerrillas ofEAM-ELAS in 1943.