People and companies engaged in industrialized livestock agriculture
An industrial meat packing plant in Hungary, 2013
Themeat industry are the people and companies engaged in modernindustrialized livestockagriculture for the production,packing,preservation andmarketing ofmeat (in contrast todairy products,wool, etc.). Ineconomics, the meat industry is a fusion of primary (agriculture) and secondary (industry) activity and hard to characterize strictly in terms of either one alone. The greater part of the meat industry is themeat packing industry – the segment that handles theslaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such aspoultry,cattle,pigs,sheep and otherlivestock.
The production of livestock is a heavilyvertically integrated industry where the majority ofsupply chain stages are integrated and owned by one company.[6] Each stage of the process of rearing animals to slaughter, is often concentrated in very few companies -- with some companies dominating multiple stages of the industry; for example in agrochemicals used in animal production 66% of global revenue are concentrated in four firms, in animal pharmaceuticals 58%.[7] For example, Brazil'sJBS S.A. have secured market dominance in multiple sectors in the USA and Brazil and is the world's largest animal slaughter company.[5] This large economic influence, both within countries and over international trade, has created significant political influence from the industry.[5] A 2025 review of scholarship found that the animal agriculture industry has played an outsized role in obstructing measures to address climate change, by actively supportingdisinformation campaigns, and preventingpolicy to address climate change.[5]
Global production of meat in 2023 was 362.9 million tons of meat, most of which was produced in industrial supply chains.[8] Meat production is globally dominated by a handful of super producing net exporting countries of meat and meat products, such as China (97.5 million tons in 2023), the United States (47.5 million tons in 2023), and Brazil (31.6 million tons in 2023) which produce, together over 176 million tons or nearly half of global production.[8] A full list of producers can be found atList of countries by meat production.
A graph showing the projected grow of meat industries for 2025-2034 from FAO/OECD
AFood and Agriculture Organization andOECD project for meat production across the world, project significant increases in animals slaughter from 2025 to 2034, as global demand for meat increases especially in lower middle income and lower income countries.[9]
When describing the meat industry, typically the focus is on the steps between breeding and rearing animals, typically in industrial-type operations, and slaughter, through to the processing and distribution of the meat. Like other parts of thefood system -- industrial scale companies tend to combine multiple of these items.
Most companies involved in the meat industry, also own businesses, factories or brands focused on using animal by-products, such asslaughterhouse waste used inpet food, or creating inputs for the sector, such ascattle feed.
Industrial livestock production is important in most of the large meat-producing regions, such as Brazil, the United States, China, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and the European Union, with expansion of megafarms orconcentrated animal feeding operations.[31][32]
TheWilliam Davies Company facilities in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, circa 1920. This facility was then the third largest hog-packing plant in North America.
In the United States and some other countries, the facility where the meat packing is done is called aslaughterhouse,packinghouse or ameat-packing plant; inNew Zealand, where most of the products are exported, it is called afreezing works.[33] Anabattoir is a place where animals are slaughtered for food.
Pork packing in Cincinnati, 1873
The meat-packing industry grew with the construction of railroads and methods ofrefrigeration formeat preservation. Railroads made possible the transport of stock to central points for processing, and the transport of products.
Ameat jobber, also known as ameat wholesaler ormeat distributor is an entity that purchases meat products from producers, typically in large quantities, and sells them to retailers.
Meat jobbers came to prominence in the 1940s, as the American highway system began to expand, superseding rail-basedbranch houses.[34][35]
Some meat jobbers known as meat breakers or meat boners would further process meat. In preparation for resale to retail, they "broke" the meat down from quarters to subprimal cuts and boned them prior to shipping.[34] Retailers used these meat jobbers since they offered flexibility in cuts, and independent packers used them since they had to do minimal processing, requiring minimal capital investment.[34]
Ameat broker is an entity of the meat industry thatbrokers the buying and selling ofmeat, carcasses, animal products, and animals such as cattle, sheep, swine, goats, horses, etc.[36] Meat brokers can also be known aspoultry brokers ormeat and poultry broker depending on their offerings.
The welfare of egg laying hens inbattery cages (top) can be compared with the welfare offree range hens (middle and bottom) which are given access to the outdoors. However, animal welfare groups argue that the vast majority of free-range hens are still intensively confined (bottom) and are rarely able to go outdoors.[46][47][48]
A major concern for the welfare of farmed animals isfactory farming in which large numbers of animals are reared in confinement at high stocking densities. Issues include the limited opportunities for natural behaviors, for example, inbattery cages,veal andgestation crates, instead producingabnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, andfeather pecking, androutine invasive procedures such asbeak trimming,castration, andear notching.More extensive methods of farming, e.g.free range, can also raise welfare concerns such as themulesing of sheep and predation of stock by wild animals.Biosecurity is also a risk with free range farming, as it allows for more contact between livestock and wild animal populations, which may carryzoonoses.[49]
Farmed animals are artificially selected for production parameters which sometimes impinge on the animals' welfare. For example,broiler chickens are bred to be very large to produce the greatest quantity of meat per animal. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high incidence of leg deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis, and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. As a consequence, they frequently become lame or suffer from broken legs. The increased body weight also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs, andascites often develop. In the UK alone, up to 20 million broilers each year die from the stress of catching and transporting before reaching the slaughterhouse.This stress can be measured by the high level of heart rate and its cortisol levels, but it can also be seen in their behavior or physical changes. In situations where they are threatened, alone, or can't interact with others, these results are common.[50] Animal welfare violations have been observed more in intensively bred chicken, pig and cattle species, respectively, and studies and laws have been enacted in this regard. However, animal welfare in semi-intensive species such as sheep and goats is nowadays being scrutinised and gaining importance.[51]
Another concern about the welfare of farmed animals is the method ofslaughter, especiallyritual slaughter. While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public considers that killing an animal reduces its welfare.[52] This leads to further concerns about premature slaughtering such aschick culling by thelaying hen industry, in which males are slaughtered immediately after hatching because they are superfluous; this policy occurs in other farmed animal industries such as the production of goat and cattle milk, raising the same concerns.
A 2023 report by theAnimal Welfare Institute found that animal welfare claims by companies selling meat and poultry products lack adequate substantiation in roughly 85% of analyzed cases.[53][54]
American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than the average American worker.[61]NPR reports that pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers are nearly seven times more likely to suffer repetitive strain injuries than average.[62]The Guardian reports that, on average, there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in theUnited States.[63] On average, one employee ofTyson Foods, the largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates a finger or limb per month.[64] The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reported that over a period of six years, in theUK 78 slaughter workers lost fingers, parts of fingers or limbs, more than 800 workers had serious injuries, and at least 4,500 had to take more than three days off after accidents.[65] In a 2018 study in the Italian Journal of Food Safety, slaughterhouse workers are instructed to wear ear protectors to protect their hearing from the constant screams of animals being killed.[66] A 2004 study in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine found that "excess risks were observed for mortality from all causes, all cancers, and lung cancer" in workers employed in the New Zealand meat processing industry.[67]
The worst thing, worse than the physical danger, is the emotional toll. If you work in the stick pit [where hogs are killed] for any period of time—that let's [sic] you kill things but doesn't let you care. You may look a hog in the eye that's walking around in the blood pit with you and think, 'God, that really isn't a bad looking animal.' You may want to pet it. Pigs down on the kill floor have come up to nuzzle me like a puppy. Two minutes later I had to kill them – beat them to death with a pipe. I can't care.
The act of slaughtering animals, or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter, may engender psychological stress or trauma in the people involved.[69][70][62][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] A 2016 study inOrganization indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior."[79] A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries."[79] As authors from the PTSD Journal explain, "These employees are hired to kill animals, such as pigs and cows, that are largely gentle creatures. Carrying out this action requires workers to disconnect from what they are doing and from the creature standing before them. This emotional dissonance can lead to consequences such as domestic violence, social withdrawal, anxiety, drug and alcohol abuse, and PTSD."[80]
Slaughterhouses in the United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and illegal immigrants.[81][82] In 2010,Human Rights Watch described slaughterhouse line work in the United States as a human rights crime.[83] In a report byOxfam America, slaughterhouse workers were observed not being allowed breaks, were often required to wear diapers, and were paid below minimum wage.[84]
Because of the outsized environmental and social impact of the meat industry, multiple industrial and social movements have proposed alternatives to a meat industry. Notable amongst these arecultured meat andmeat alternatives, both industrially manufactured substitutes for meat for people seeking the experience of meat in food, without the associated environmental or ethical impacts. However, neither industry has taken a significant portion of the market. After much hype during the late 2010s and early 2020s, many of the larger companies, such asBeyond Meat, pursuing meat alternatives saw a significant drop in value.[85]
Ameat alternative or meat substitute, also referred to as a plant-based meat, mock meat, or alternative protein,[86] is a food product that is made fromvegetarian orvegan ingredients and is consumed as a replacement for meat. The objective of meat alternatives is to replicate the qualities of meat, including itsmouthfeel, flavor, and appearance.[87][88][89][90][91][92] Plant- and fungus-based substitutes are frequently made withsoy (e.g.,tofu,tempeh, andtextured vegetable protein), but may also be made fromwheat gluten as inseitan,pea protein as in theBeyond Burger, ormycoprotein as inQuorn.[93] Alternative protein foods can also be made byprecision fermentation, where single cell organisms such as yeast produce specific proteins using a carbon source; or can be grown byculturing animal cells outside an animal, based ontissue engineering techniques.[94] The ingredients of meat alternatives include 50–80% water, 10–25% textured vegetable proteins, 4–20% non-textured proteins, 0–15% fat and oil, 3-10% flavors/spices, 1–5% binding agents, and 0–0.5% coloring agents.[95]
Meatless tissue engineering involves the cultivation of stem cells on natural or synthetic scaffolds to create meat-like products.[96] Scaffolds can be made from various materials, including plant-derivedbiomaterials, synthetic polymers, animal-based proteins, and self-assembling polypeptides.[97] It is these 3D scaffold-based methods that provide a specialized structural environment for cellular growth.[98][99] Alternatively, scaffold-free methods promote cell aggregation, allowing cells to self-organize into tissue-like structures.[100]
Meat substitution has a long history. Tofu was invented in China as early as 200 BCE,[101] and in theMiddle Ages, chopped nuts and grapes were used as a substitute formincemeat duringLent.[102] Since the 2010s, startup companies such asImpossible Foods andBeyond Meat have popularized pre-made plant-based substitutes forground beef, burgerpatties, andchicken nuggets as commercial products.
Mark Post of theUniversity of Maastricht presentsThe Meat Revolution, a lecture about cultured meat, 2015Isha Datar ofNew Harvest on how a "post-animal bio-economy" can be brought about through cultured meat, eggs, and milk, 2017
Jason Matheny popularized the concept in the early 2000s after he co-authored a paper[117] on cultured meat production and createdNew Harvest, the world's firstnon-profit organization dedicated toin vitro meat research.[118] In 2013,Mark Post created ahamburger patty made from tissue grown outside of an animal; other cultured meatprototypes have gained media attention since. In 2020,SuperMeat opened a farm-to-fork restaurant inTel Aviv called The Chicken, serving cultured chicken burgers in exchange for reviews to test consumer reaction rather than money;[119][120] while the "world's first commercial sale of cell-cultured meat" occurred in December 2020 atSingapore restaurant 1880, where cultured chicken manufactured by United States firmEat Just was sold.[121][122]
Most efforts focus on common meats such as pork, beef, and chicken; species which constitute the bulk of conventional meat consumption in developed countries.[123] Some companies have pursued various species of fish and other seafood,[124] such as Avant Meats who brought culturedgrouper to market in 2021.[125] Other companies such as Orbillion Bio have focused on high-end or unusual meats including elk, lamb, bison, and Wagyu beef.[126]
The production process of cultured meat is constantly evolving, driven by companies andresearch institutions.[127] The applications for cultured meat have led toethical,[128]health,environmental, cultural, andeconomic discussions.[129] Data published byThe Good Food Institute found that in 2021 through 2023, cultured meat and seafood companies attracted over $2.5 billion in investment worldwide.[130] However, cultured meat is not yet widely available.
In January 2024, a study demonstrated that cow cells can produce its owngrowth factors and do not require the expensive recombinant growth factors or the cruel and expensivefetal bovine serum.[131]
In November 2025, a study demonstrated that cow cells can be spontaneously immortalized after 500 days without genetic modification, similar to how chicken cells are readily spontaneously immortalized in culture.[132]
^abHannah Ritchie, Pablo Rosado, and Max Roser (2019) - “Meat and Dairy Production” Published online at OurWorldinData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production' [Online Resource]
^Lusk, Jayson (23 September 2016)."Why Industrial Farms Are Good for the Environment".The New York Times.Archived from the original on 23 September 2016.Before 'factory farming' became a pejorative, agricultural scholars of the mid-20th century were calling for farmers to do just that — become more factorylike and businesslike. From that time, farm sizes have risen significantly. It is precisely this large size that is often criticized today in the belief that large farms put profit ahead of soil and animal health.
^Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":
Fraser, David.Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005. Turner, Jacky."History of factory farming"Archived November 16, 2013, at theWayback Machine, United Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ... The intensive systems – called 'factory farms' – were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in barren and unnatural conditions."
"Head to head: Intensive farming", BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."
"Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "'Factory' farming refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture.
"Head to head: Intensive farming", BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Africa, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."
^Arsoy, Dilek (1 January 2020). "Herd management and welfare assessment of dairy goat farms in Northern Cyprus by using breeding, health, reproduction, and biosecurity indicators".Tropical Animal Health and Production.52 (1):71–78.doi:10.1007/s11250-019-01990-3.ISSN1573-7438.PMID31325019.
^Eisnitz, Gail A. (1997).Slaughterhouse: The Shocking Story of Greed, Neglect, and Inhumane Treatment Inside the U.S. Meat Industry. Prometheus Books.ISBN978-1-57392-166-4.[page needed]
^abBaran, B. E.; Rogelberg, S. G.; Clausen, T (2016). "Routinized killing of animals: Going beyond dirty work and prestige to understand the well-being of slaughterhouse workers".Organization.23 (3):351–369.doi:10.1177/1350508416629456.S2CID148368906.
^Pang, Shinsiong; Chen, Mu-Chen (April 2024). "Investigating the impact of consumer environmental consciousness on food supply chain: The case of plant-based meat alternatives".Technological Forecasting and Social Change.201 123190.doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2023.123190.ISSN0040-1625.
^Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004).Food in Medieval Times. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 72.ISBN978-0-313-32147-4.
^Gaydhane, Mrunalini K.; Mahanta, Urbashi; Sharma, Chandra S.; Khandelwal, Mudrika; Ramakrishna, Seeram (2018). "Cultured meat: state of the art and future".Biomanufacturing Reviews.3 (1) 1.doi:10.1007/s40898-018-0005-1.S2CID85513225.
^Post, Mark (4 December 2013). "Medical technology to Produce Food".Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.94 (6):1039–1041.doi:10.1002/jsfa.6474.PMID24214798.
^Gaydhane, Mrunalini K.; Mahanta, Urbashi; Sharma, Chandra S.; Khandelwal, Mudrika; Ramakrishna, Seeram (2018). "Cultured meat: state of the art and future".Biomanufacturing Reviews.3 (1) 1.doi:10.1007/s40898-018-0005-1.
Walsh, Margaret (1982). "From Pork Merchant to Meat Packer: The Midwestern Meat Industry in the Mid Nineteenth Century".Agricultural History.56 (1):127–137.JSTOR3742304.
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