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Ancient Maya art comprises thevisual arts of theMaya civilization, an eastern and south-easternMesoamerican culture made up of a great number of small kingdoms in what is now Mexico,Guatemala,Belize andHonduras. Many regional artistic traditions existed side by side, usually coinciding with the changing boundaries of Maya polities. This civilization took shape in the course of the later Preclassic Period (from c. 750 BC to 100 BC), when the first cities and monumental architecture started to develop and the hieroglyphic script came into being. Its greatest artistic flowering occurred during the seven centuries of the Classic Period (c. 250 to 950 CE).
Maya art forms tend to be more stiffly organized during the Early Classic (250-550 CE) and to become more expressive during the Late Classic phase (550-950 CE). In the course of history, influences of various other Mesoamerican cultures were absorbed. In the late Preclassic, the influence of theOlmec style is still discernible (as in theSan Bartolo murals), whereas in the Early Classic, the style of central MexicanTeotihuacan made itself felt, just as that of theToltec in the Postclassic.
After the demise of the Classic kingdoms of the central lowlands, ancient Maya art went through an extended Postclassic phase (950-1550 CE) centered on the Yucatan peninsula, before the upheavals of the sixteenth century destroyed courtly culture and put an end to the Maya artistic tradition. Traditional art forms mainly survived in weaving, pottery, and the design of peasant houses.
The nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century publications on Maya art and archaeology byStephens,Catherwood,Maudslay,Maler andCharnay for the first time made available reliable drawings and photographs of major Classic Maya monuments.
Following this initial phase, the 1913 publication of Herbert Spinden'sA Study of Maya Art laid the foundation for all later developments of Maya art history (including iconography).[1] The book gives an analytical treatment of themes and motifs, particularly the ubiquitous serpent and dragon motifs, and a review of the 'material arts', such as the composition of temple facades, roof combs and mask panels. Spinden's chronological treatment of Maya art was later (1950) refined by the motif analysis of the architect and specialist in archaeological drawing,Tatiana Proskouriakoff, in her bookA Study of Classic Maya Sculpture.[2]Kubler's 1969 inventory of Maya iconography, containing a site-by-site treatment of 'commemorative' images and a topical treatment of ritual and mythical images (such as the 'triadic sign'), concluded a period of gradual increase of knowledge that was soon to be overshadowed by new developments.
Starting in the early 1970s, the historiography of the Maya kingdoms – first of all, Palenque – came to occupy the forefront. Art-historical interpretation joined the historical approach pioneered by Proskouriakoff as well as the mythological approach initiated byM.D. Coe, with an archaeological illustrator,Merle Greene Robertson, and a professor of art,Linda Schele, serving as driving forces. Schele's seminal interpretations of Maya art are found throughout her work, especially inThe Blood of Kings, written together with art historianM. Miller.[3] Maya art history was also spurred by the enormous increase in sculptural and ceramic imagery, due to extensive archaeological excavations, as well as to organized looting on an unprecedented scale. From 1973 onwards, M.D. Coe published a series of books offering pictures and interpretations of unknown Maya vases, with the Popol Vuh Twin myth for an explanatory model.[4] In 1981, Robicsek and Hales added an inventory and classification of Maya vases painted in codex style,[5] thereby revealing even more of a hitherto barely known spiritual world.
As to subsequent developments, important issues in Schele's iconographic work have been elaborated byKarl Taube.[6] New approaches to Maya art include studies of ancient Maya ceramic workshops,[7] the representation of bodily experience and the senses in Maya art,[8] and of hieroglyphs considered as iconographic units.[9] Meanwhile, the number of monographs devoted to the monumental art of specific courts is growing.[10] A good impression of recent Mexican and North American art historical scholarship can be gathered from the exhibition cataloguesCourtly Art of the Ancient Maya (2004)[11] andLives of the Gods: Divinity in Maya Art (2022).[12]
The layout of the Maya towns andcities, and more particularly of the ceremonial centers where the royal families and courtiers resided, is characterized by the rhythm of immense horizontal stucco floors of plazas often located at various levels, connected by broad and often steep stairs, and surmounted by temple pyramids.[13] Under successive reigns, the main buildings were enlarged by adding new layers of fill and stucco coating. Irrigation channels, reservoirs, and drains made up the hydraulic infrastructure. Outside the ceremonial center (especially in the southern area sometimes resembling anacropolis) were the structures of lesser nobles, smaller temples, and individual shrines, surrounded by the wards of the commoners. Dam-like causeways (sacbeob) spread from the 'ceremonial centers' to other nuclei of habitation. Fitting in with the concept of a 'theatre state', more attention appears to have been given to aesthetics than to solidity of construction. Careful attention, however, was placed on directional orientation.
Among the various types of stone structures should be mentioned:
Among the structural ensembles are:
In the palaces and temple rooms, the 'corbelled vault' was often applied. Though not an effective means to increase interior space, as it required thick stone walls to support the high ceiling, some temples utilized repeated arches, or a corbelled vault, to construct an inner sanctuary (e.g., that of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque).
The northern Maya area (Campeche and Yucatan) shows architectural characteristics of its own. Its Classic regional styles, calledPuuc ('Hills'), Chenes ('Sources'), andRio Bec,[15] are characterized by mosaic facades in stone; geometrical reduction of realistic decoration; stacking of rain god snouts to build facades; use of portals shaped like serpent mouths; and, in the southernmost or Rio Bec area, the use of solid pseudo temple-pyramids. The most important Puuc site isUxmal.Chichen Itza, dominating Yucatán from the Late Classic to well into the Post-Classic, features Classic buildings in Chenes and Puuc style as well as Post-Classic building types of Mexican derivation, such as the radial four-staircase pyramid, the colonnaded hall, and the circular temple. The latter features were inherited by the succeeding kingdom ofMayapan.
Far to the South, the Guatemalan Highlands had their own longstanding building traditions. However, by the Classic period, settlements did by and large not participate in the great artistic traditions of the Lowland area. In the Postclassic period, the architecture of relatively young hilltop sites, such as the Quiché capitalQ'umarkaj, shows strong Toltec influences, not unlike the architecture of Chichén Itzá and Mayapán to the north.[16] No significant murals or sculptures have been preserved from the Postclassic Highlands.
The main Preclassic sculptural style from the Maya area is that ofIzapa, a large site on the Pacific coast where many stelas and (frog-shaped) altars were found showing motifs also present inOlmec art.[17] The stelas, mostly without inscriptions, often show mythological and narrative subjects, some of which appear to relate to the Twin myth of thePopol Vuh. However, next to nothing is known about the settlement's former ethnic composition. Artistically, Izapa is closely related toKaminaljuyú, a huge and almost completely destroyed site once dominating the Guatemalan Highlands.[18] Among its scattered remains are highlights of Late Preclassic sculpture, such as an altar with an intricate figural relief accompanied by a long inscription (Monument 10).
For the Classic Period of the central Maya area, the following major classes of stone sculpture (usually executed in limestone) may be distinguished.
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It is believed that carvings in wood were once extremely common, but only a few examples have survived. Most 16th-century wood carvings, considered objects of idolatry, were destroyed by the Spanish colonial authorities. The most important Classic examples consist of intricately worked lintels, mostly from the mainTikal pyramid sanctuaries,[25] with one specimen from nearbyEl Zotz. The Tikal wood reliefs, each consisting of several beams, and dating to the 8th century, show a king on his seat with a protector figure looming large behind, in the form of a Teotihuacan-style 'war serpent' (Temple I lintel 2), a jaguar (Temple I lintel 3), or a human impersonator of thejaguar god of terrestrial fire (Temple IV lintel 2). Other Tikal lintels depict an obese king wearing a jaguar dress and standing in front of his seat (Temple III lintel 2); and most famously, a victorious king, dressed as an astral death god, and standing on a palanquin underneath an arching feathered serpent (Temple IV lintel 3). A rare utility object is a tiny lidded box fromTortuguero with hieroglyphic text all around. Free sculpture in wood, dating back to the 6th century, is represented by a dignified seated man possibly functioning as a mirror bearer.
At least since Late Preclassic times, modeled and painted stucco plaster covered the floors and buildings of the town centers and provided the setting for their stone sculptures. Often, large mask panels with the plastered heads of deities in high relief (particularly those of sun, rain, and earth) are found attached to the sloping retaining walls of temple platforms flanking stairs (e.g.,Kohunlich). Stucco modeling and relief work can also cover the entire building, as shown by Temple 16 ofCopan, in its 6th-century form (known as 'Rosalila'). Dedicated to the first king,Yax K'uk' Mo', this early temple has preserved plastered and painted facades. The stuccoed friezes, walls, piers, and roof combs of the Late Preclassic and Classic periods show varying and sometimes symbolically complicated decorative programs.
Several solutions for dividing up and ordering the stuccoed surfaces of buildings were applied, serialization being one of them. The Early Classic walls of the 'Temple of theNight Sun' inEl Zotz consist of a series of subtly varied deity mask panels, whereas the frieze of aBalamku palace, also from the Early Classic, originally had a series of four rulers enthroned above the open ophidian mouths of four different animals (a toad among them) associated with symbolic mountains. Conversely, friezes may be centered on a single ruler again sitting on a symbolic (maize) mountain, such as a frieze fromHolmul, with two feathered serpents emanating from below the ruler's seat, and another one fromXultun, on which the ruler carries a large ceremonial bar with emerging jaguar-like figures.[26] An Early-Classic temple frieze from Placeres, Quintana Roo, has the large mask panel of a young lord or deity in the middle, with two lateral'Grandfather' deities extending their arms.
Often, a frieze is divided into compartments. Late Preclassic friezes ofEl Mirador, for example, show the intervening spaces of an undulating serpent's body filled out with aquatic birds, and the sections of an aquatic band with swimming figures.[27] Similarly, a Classic palace frieze inAcanceh is divided into panels holding different animal figures[28] reminiscent ofwayob, while a wall inTonina has lozenge-shaped fields suggesting a scaffold and presenting continuous narrative scenes that relate to human sacrifice.[29]
Plastered roof combs are similar to some of the friezes above in that they usually show large representations of rulers, who may again be seated on a symbolic mountain, and also, as on Palenque's Temple of the Sun, set within a cosmological framework. Further examples of Classic stucco modeling include the piers of the Palenque Palace, embellished with a series of lords and ladies in ritual dress, and the 'baroque', Late-Classic Chenes-style stucco entrance, beset with naturalistic human figures, on the Acropolis (Str. 1) ofEk' Balam.
Unique in Mesoamerica, Classic Period stucco modeling includes realistic portraiture of a quality equalling that of Roman ancestral portraits, with the lofty stucco heads of Palenque rulers and portraits of dignitaries fromTonina as outstanding examples. The modeling recalls that of certain Jaina ceramic statuettes. Some, but not all, of these portrait heads were once part of life-size stucco figures adorning temple crests.[30] In the same way, one finds stucco glyphs that were once a part of stuccoed texts.
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Although, due to the humid climate ofCentral America, relatively few Maya paintings have survived to the present day integrally, important remnants have been found in nearly all major court residences. This is especially the case in substructures, hidden under later architectural additions. Mural paintings may show more or less repetitive motifs, such as the subtly varied flower symbols on walls of House E of the Palenque Palace; scenes of daily life, as in one of the buildings surrounding the central square ofCalakmul and in a palace of Chilonche; or ritual scenes involving deities, as in the Post-Classic temple murals of Yucatán's and Belize's east coast (Tancah,Tulum, Santa Rita).[31] The latter murals betray a strong influence of the so-called 'Mixteca-Puebla style' once widely spread across Mesoamerica.
Murals may also evince a more narrative character, usually with hieroglyphic captions present. The colourfulBonampak murals, for example, dating from 790 AD, and extending over the walls and vaults of three adjacent rooms, show spectacular scenes of nobility, battle and sacrifice, as well as a group of ritual impersonators in the midst of a file ofmusicians.[32] AtSan Bartolo, murals dating from 100 BCE relate to the myths of theMaya maize god and the hero twinHunahpu, and depict a double inthronization; antedating the Classic Period by several centuries, the style is already fully developed, with colours being subtle and muted as compared to those of Bonampak or Calakmul.[33] Outside the Maya area, in a ward of East-Central MexicanCacaxtla, murals painted in a predominantly Classic Maya style, with often stark colors, have been found, such as a savage battle scene extending over 20 meters; two figures of Maya lords standing on serpents; and an irrigated maize and cacao field visited bythe Maya merchant deity.[34]
Wall painting also occurs on vault capstones, in tombs (e.g.,Río Azul), and in caves (e.g.,Naj Tunich),[35] usually executed in black on a whitened surface, at times with the additional use of red paint. Yucatec vault capstones often show a depiction of the enthronedlightning deity as a god of agricultural plenty (e.g.,Ek' Balam).
A bright turquoise blue colour—'Maya Blue'—has survived through the centuries due to its unique chemical characteristics; this color is present inBonampak,Cacaxtla, Jaina,El Tajín, and even in some Colonial convents. The use of Maya Blue survived until the 16th century, when the technique was finally lost.[36]
The Maya writing system consists of about 1000 distinct characters or hieroglyphs ('glyphs'), and like many ancient writing systems is a mixture of syllabic signs andlogograms. This script was in use from the 3rd century BCE until shortly after the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. As of now (2021), a considerable proportion of the characters has a reading, but their meaning and configuration as a text is not always understood. The books were folded and consisted of bark paper or leather leaves with an adhesive stucco layer on which to write; they were protected by jaguar skin covers and, perhaps, wooden boards.[37] Since every diviner probably needed a book, there must have existed large numbers of them.
Today, threeMaya hieroglyphic books, all from the Post-Classic period, are still in existence: theDresden,Paris, andMadrid codices. A fourth book, theGrolier, is Maya-Toltec rather than Maya and lacks hieroglyphic texts; fragmentary and of very poor draughtsmanship, it shows many anomalies, reason for which its authenticity has long remained in doubt.[38] These books are largely of a divinatory and priestly nature, containing almanacs, astrological tables, and ritual programs, the Paris Codex alsokatun-prophecies. Great attention was paid to a harmonious balance of texts and (partly coloured) illustrations.
Besides the codical glyphs, there existed a cursive script of an often dynamic character, found in wall-paintings and on ceramics, and imitated in stone on panels from Palenque (such as the 'Tablet of the 96 glyphs'). Often, written captions are enclosed in square 'boxes' of various shapes within the representation. Wall paintings may also entirely consist of texts (Ek' Balam 'Mural of the 96 glyphs',Naj Tunich cave), or, more rarely, contain astrological computations (Xultun); sometimes, written on a white stuccoed surface, and executed with particular care and elegance, these texts are like enlargements of book pages.
Hieroglyphs are ubiquitous and were written on every available surface, including the human body. The glyphs themselves are highly detailed, and particularly thelogograms are deceivingly realistic. As a matter of fact, from an art-historical point of view, they should also be viewed as art motifs, andvice versa.[9] Sculptors at Copan and Quirigua have consequently felt free to convert hieroglyphic elements and calendrical signs into animated, dramatic miniature scenes ('full figure glyphs').[39]
Unlike utility ceramics found in such large numbers among the debris of archaeological sites, most of the decorated pottery (cylinder vessels, lidded dishes, tripod plates, vases, bowls) once was 'social currency' among the Maya nobility, and, preserved as heirlooms, also accompanied the nobles into their graves.[40] The aristocratic tradition of gift-giving feasts[41] and ceremonial visits, and the emulation that inevitably went with these exchanges, goes a long way towards explaining the high level of artistry reached in Classical times.
Made without a potter's wheel, decorated pottery was delicately painted, carved into relief, incised, or - chiefly during the Early Classic period - made with the Teotihuacanfresco technique of applying paint to a wet clay surface. The precious objects were manufactured in numerous workshops distributed over the Maya kingdoms, some of the most famous being associated with the'Chama-style', the'Holmul-style', the so-called'Ik-style'[42] and, for carved pottery, the 'Chochola-style.'[43]
Vase decoration shows great variation, including palace scenes, courtly ritual, mythology, divinatory glyphs, and even dynastical texts taken from chronicles, and plays a major role in reconstructing Classical Maya life and beliefs. Ceramic scenes and texts painted in black and red on a white underground, the equivalents of pages from the lost folding books, are referred to as being in 'Codex Style' (e.g., the so-calledPrinceton Vase). The overlap with the three extant hieroglyphic books is (at least up to now) relatively small.
Sculptural ceramic art includes the lids of Early Classic bowls mounted by human or animal figures; some of these bowls, burnished black, are among the most distinguished Maya works of art ever created.
Ceramic sculpture also includesincense burners and burial urns. Best known are the profusely decorated Classic burners from the kingdom of Palenque, which have the modeled face of a deity or of a king attached to an elongated hollow tube. The deity most frequently depicted, thejaguar deity of terrestrial fire, is cognate with the jaguar deity often adorning large Classic burial urns from the Guatemalan department of El Quiché.[44] The elaborate Post-Classic, mold-made effigy incense burners especially associated withMayapan represent standing deities (or priestly deity impersonators) often carrying offerings.[45]
Finally, figurines, often mold-made,[46] and of an amazing liveliness and realism, constitute a minor but highly informative genre. Apart from deities,animal persons, rulers and dwarfs, they show many other characters as well as scenes taken from daily life.[47] Some of these figurines are ocarinas and may have been used in rituals. The most impressive examples stem fromJaina Island.
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It is remarkable that the Maya, who had no metal tools, created many objects from a very hard and dense material, jade (jadeite), particularly all sorts of (royal) dress elements, such asbelt plaques, Celts, ear spools, pendants, and also masks. Celts (i.e., flat, axe-shaped ornaments) were sometimes engraved with a stela-like representation of the king (e.g., the Early-Classic'Leyden Plate'). The best-known example of a mask is probably the death mask of the Palenque kingPakal, covered with irregularly-shaped jade plaques and having eyes made frommother-of-pearl and obsidian; another death mask, belonging to aPalenque queen, consists of malachite plaques. Similarly, certain cylindrical vases from Tikal have an outer layer of square jade discs. Many stone carvings had jade inlays.
Among other sculpted and engraved materials areflint,chert, shell, and bone, often found in caches and burials. The so-called 'eccentric flints' are ceremonial objects of uncertain use, in their most elaborate forms of elongated shape with usually various heads extending on one or both sides, sometimes those of thelightning deity, but more often of an anthropomorphic lightning probably representing theTonsured Maize God.[48] Shell was worked into disks and other decorative elements showing human, possibly ancestral heads and deities;conch trumpets were similarly decorated.[49] Human and animal bones were decorated with incised symbols and scenes. A collection of small and modified, tubular bones from an 8th-century royal burial underTikal Temple I contains some of the most subtle engravings known from the Maya, including several scenes with theTonsured maize god in a canoe.[50]
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Textiles from the Classic period, made of cotton, have not survived, but Maya art provides detailed information about their appearance and, to a lesser extent, their social function.[51] They include delicate fabrics used as wrappings, curtains and canopies furnishing palaces, and garments. Among the dyeing techniques may have beenikat. Daily costume depended on social standing. Noblewomen usually wore long dresses, noblemen girdles and breechcloths, leaving legs and upper body more or less bare, unless jackets or mantles were worn. Both men and women could wear turbans. Costumes worn on ceremonial occasions and during the many festivities were highly expressive and exuberant; animal headdresses were common. The most elaborate costume was the formal apparel of the king, as depicted on the royal stelae, with numerous elements of symbolic meaning.[52]
Wickerwork, only known from incidental depictions in sculptural and ceramic art,[53] must once have been ubiquitous; the well-knownpop ('mat') motif testifies to its importance.[54]
Body decorations often consisted of painted patterns on face and body, but could also be of a permanent character marking status and age differences. The latter type included artificial deformation of the skull, filing and incrustation of the teeth, and tattooing of the face.[55]
There are a great many museums across the world with Maya artifacts in their collections. TheFoundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies lists over 250 museums in its Maya Museum database,[56] and theEuropean Association of Mayanists lists just under 50 museums in Europe alone.[57]
InMexico City, theMuseo Nacional de Antropología contains an especially large selection of Maya artifacts.[58] An increasing number of regional museums in Mexico hold important collections, includingMuseo Amparo in Puebla, with its famous throne back from Chiapas; theMuseo de las Estelas "Román Piña Chan" inCampeche;[59] theMuseo Regional de Yucatán "Palacio Cantón" and the "Gran Museo del mundo maya", both inMérida; and theMuseo Regional de Antropología "Carlos Pellicer Camera" inVillahermosa, Tabasco.[60]
In Guatemala, the most important museum collections are those of theMuseo Popol Vuh and theMuseo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, both inGuatemala City.[58] The Ruta Maya Foundation regularly organizes exhibitions from its own collection of retrieved art objects, part of which were formerly held by the private 'El Príncipe maya' museum ofCobán. In Belize, Maya artefacts can be found in theMuseum of Belize and theBliss Institute; in Honduras, in the Copan Sculpture Museum and in theGalería Nacional de Arte,Tegucigalpa.
In the United States, almost every major art museum has a collection of Maya artifacts, often including stone monuments. Among the more important east coast collections are those of theMetropolitan Museum of Art inNew York; theMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston; thePrinceton University Art Museum; thePeabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology inCambridge,Massachusetts; theDumbarton Oaks collection;[61] and theUniversity of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, with its famous inaugural stela 14 ofPiedras Negras. On the west coast, theDe Young Museum of San Francisco and theLos Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), with its large collection of painted Maya ceramics, are important. Other notable collections include theCleveland Museum of Art inOhio and theArt Institute of Chicago.
In Europe, theBritish Museum inLondon exhibits a series of famous Yaxchilan lintels, and theMuseum der Kulturen inBasel,Switzerland, a number of wooden lintels from Tikal. TheEthnologisches Museum inBerlin holds a broad selection of Maya artifacts, including an incised Early-Classic vase showing a king lying in state and awaiting post-mortem transformation. TheMuseo de América inMadrid hosts the Madrid Codex as well as a large selection of artifacts from Palenque.[60] Other notable European museums are theMusée du Quai Branly, Paris; theMusées royaux d'art et d'histoire,Brussels; theRijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde inLeiden,Netherlands, second home to theLeyden Plate;[59] and theRietberg Museum inZürich, Switzerland.[60]
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