Long gray- or silver-coloured beard, monastic vestments
Maximus the Greek, also known asMaximos the Greek orMaksim Grek (Greek:Μάξιμος ὁ Γραικός;[a]Russian:Максим Грек;c. 1475 – c. 1556), was a Greekmonk, publicist, writer, scholar, and translator active in Russia.[1][2][3] He is also calledMaximos the Hagiorite (Μάξιμος ὁ Ἁγιορίτης),[4] as well asMaximus the Philosopher.[5] His signature wasMaximus Grecus Lakedaimon (lit. Maximus the Greek of, and originating from,Lakedaimonia) and his family origins were probably fromMystras, a location inLaconia, which was the geographical site ofAncient Sparta in thePeloponnese.[6][7] Canonised in 1988, he is venerated as a saint byEastern Orthodox Christians; with a feast day on 21 January.
In 1504 (according to other accounts, 1505 or early 1506),[40] Maximus left the Dominican monastery of St. Mark and went toMount Athos where he took monastic vows at theMonastery of Vatopedi in 1507.[41] In 1515, Grand PrinceVasili III asked theabbot of the monastery to send him a certainmonk by the name of Savva to translate a number of religious texts.[42] Savva was so old that theabbot decided to send the energetic Maximus instead, though he had no knowledge of theChurch Slavonic language. Nevertheless, the monks vouched for him, and he went to Moscow, where he was met with great honor.[43] Upon arriving in Moscow in 1518, Maximus headed the movement of religious reform.[44][45] In 1518, Maximus met Prince Kurbskii, who later wrote about Maximus and his time in Moscow inSkazanie o Maksime Filosofe ("The Tale of Maxim the Philosopher").[5] In this work, Kurbskii describes a meeting between Maximus and Vasili III whereupon Maximus was astonished at the countless multitudes of Greek books displayed at Vasili III's court.[5] Maximus assured the prince that he had never seen so many Greek works in Greece itself.[5] This testimony is the earliest known reference of a collection of ancient manuscripts belonging to the Russian tsars which has never been found, also referred to asThe Lost Library of the Moscow Tsars.[5] This lost library later became a favorite research topic of early 20th century Russian archaeologistIgnatius Stelletskii.[46]
Maximus's first major work in Russia was a translation of thePsalter together with the Russian translators (including the scholarDmitry Gerasimov) andscriveners, which would be solemnly approved by the Russian clergy and the grand prince himself. AfterVasili III rejected his request to go home, Maximus continued to work on translations and correcting the books fordivine service. Observing the "defects" and injustices ofMuscovite life, which seemed to him in direct opposition to his Christian ideals, Maximus began to expose them and criticize the authorities, attracting different people with similar views, such asIvan Bersen-Beklemishev,Vassian Patrikeyev, and others. With regards to the question of monastic estates, which had already divided the Russian clergy into twoantagonistic camps (the Possessors and theNon-Possessors), Maximus took sides withNilus of Sors and hisstartsy, who headed the Non-Possessors camp.[47] This would make him one of the worst enemies of theJosephites, who stood for the right of the monasteries to own land. Maximus and his followers discussed freely the shortcomings of Russia's internal and foreign policies, criticized the lifestyle of the Russian clergy, exploitation ofpeasants, and the system of supporting local authorities by "milking" the peasants (so-calledkormleniye).
Maximus the Greek has been held in the greatest repute byOld Believers, and his images are normally featured in every Old Believer church.
Maximus's relations withVassian Patrikeyev,Ivan Bersen-Beklemishev, andTurkish ambassador Skinder,Metropolitan Daniel's hostility towards him, and Greek's own negative attitude towards Vasili III's intention to divorceSolomonia Saburova decided his fate. Asobor (council) in 1525 accused Maximus ofnonconformism andheresy based on his views and translations of ecclesiastic books, disregarding his incomplete knowledge of Russian and obvious mistakes on the part of the Russian scriveners (his improper use of the imperfect tense was used to imply that he no longer believed the Holy Spirit was the Third Person of the Trinity but only had been temporarily). He was then exiled to theJoseph-Volokolamsk Monastery and placed in adungeon without the right to take communion or correspond. Maximus's "irritating" behavior at the monastery, newly discovered mistakes in his translations, and old suspicions of his unscrupulous relations with the now dead Turkish ambassador were all used against him once again at a newsobor in 1531. Worn out by the harsh conditions of his imprisonment, Maximus acknowledged some minor mistakes in his translations and excessive wine drinking. Finally, thesobor banned him from receivingcommunion and exiled him to the Otroch Monastery inTver, where he would spend his next twenty years. ThePatriarch of Antioch,Patriarch of Constantinople, andPatriarch of Jerusalem all attempted to negotiate Maximus's release with the Russian authorities, but to no avail. He himself pleaded withIvan the Terrible (r. 1547–1584) andMetropolitan Macarius for his freedom. Moscow was afraid of Maximus's ability to expose wrongdoings and criticize the powers that be and, therefore, was reluctant to let him go. In 1551 (or 1553 according to other accounts), Maximus was transferred to theTroitse-Sergiyeva Lavra at the solicitation of someboyars andHegumen Artemiy of thelavra. That same year, according to some accounts, thetsar is said to have visited Maximus during hispilgrimage toKirillo-Belozersky Monastery; Maximus is described as having advised the ruler to take care of the families of soldiers who died in the conquest ofKazan instead of merely praying for the dead. In 1554, Maximus was invited to join asobor, which would deal with the heresy ofMatvei Bashkin, but he refused, being wary of getting entangled in this case.
Hagiographicalfresco of Saint Maximus the Greek (Graikos) in the Greek Orthodox tradition.
Maximus played an important role in shaping Russian Christian tradition; he left a voluminous body of original writings and translations into Russian Church Slavonic.[48] He spent a great deal of energy and ink in his efforts to prove his innocence and Orthodoxy. He interpreted and explained for his Muscovite readers a large number of points of ancient and Biblical history, Orthodox Church practice and teachings, and features of the contemporary world outside of Muscovy. For example, he was the first to bring the discovery of theNew World to the attention of Muscovite readers. He is considered asaint by theEastern Orthodox Church, which commemorates him on 21 January.
Treadgold 1973, p. 14: "Maxim the Greek has been shown to be the same as Michael Trivolis, a remarkably learned monk who spent more than half his life in the West. Born at Arta in present-day Greece about 1470, he came from one of the great families of Byzantium, members of which had been friends and counselors of emperors and included a patriarch of Constantinople (Callixtus I, 1350–63)"
Kaltenbrunner 1989, p. 149: "1492, also noch zu Lebzeiten Picos, kam der junge Grieche Michael Trivolis nach Florenz, wo er in jenen Kreisen verkehrte, die dem Grafen von Mirandola zugeneigt waren. Michael Trivolis wurde Sekretär des gleichfalls philosophisch."
Fassmann & Bill 1974, pp. 471‒472: "[...] tritt ein junger griechischer Humanist, Michael Trivolis, in das Kloster San Marco ein, das schwer überschattet ist von den Folgen der Vernichtung Savonarolas. Michael hat im Hause der Reichsgrafen della Mirandola deren."
Letiche & Dmytryshyn 1990, p. 55: "As Possevino says: 'In measure that the 32 Maksim the Greek (original name Michael Trivolis, I470(?)-I557) was a Greek scholar-monk who studied for several years in Florence at the Platonic Academy, where he met many luminaries of the [...]"
Medlin 1952, p. 64: "Maximus the Greek (born Michael Trivolis, ca. 1475‒1556) had come to Moscow in 1518 in response to Grand Prince Vasili III's request to Mt. Athos monasteries for a learned translator of Greek into Slavonic. The erudite Greek monk [...]"
Speake 2018, p. 186: "It was the Russian scholar Elie Denissoff who first identified the Greek émigré Michael Trivolis with the monk Maximos the Greek and, thanks to this identification, was able to suggest that his life took the form of a diptych, of which Italy and Russia are the two leaves and Athos is the hinge."
Johnston 2013, p. 838: "Maximus the Greek, St. c. 1470‒1555 Greek Dominican friar, then Orthodox monk, polemicist, and translator in Russia."
Onasch 1967, p. 51: "Auf den Moskauer Synoden von 1525 und 1531 lief, er die von dem Griechen Maximos (Maksim Grek) durchgeführten Textrevisionen altrussischer Übersetzungen aus dem Griechischen (Patristica, Liturgica) verwerfen. Maksim kam in strengste Klosterhaft und durfte nicht einmal kommunizieren."
Trueb 2008, p. 17: "Der griechische Schriftgelehrte Maksim Grek, der seit 1518 am grossfürstlichen Hof tätig war, und russische Bücherliebhaber wie der [...]"
Thomas & Chesworth 2015, p. 135: "Maximus the Greek Date of Birth 1475 Place of Birth Arta, Greece Date of Death 1556 Place of Death Sergiyev Posad, Russia BIOGRAPHY Maximus the Greek was born Michael Trivolis in 1475 in Arta, Greece, to a family of Greek aristocrats."
Wes 1992, p. 22: "The oldest was not actually a Russian, but a Greek monk from Arta in Epirus: Maksim Grek (ca 1471–1556). His real name was Mikhail Trivolis."
Avenarius 2005, p. 119: "Maxim the Greek, already mentioned in connection with the struggle against the Markion heresy (compare VIII. 3.2), was a Greek monk, who came to Russia in 1518 at the invitation of Prince Basil III to participate in correction of the Russian liturgical books [...]"
Helleman 2004, p. 213: "Maximus the Greek (Mikhail Trivolis) (1475‒1556) Greek Orthodox monk, humanist scholar, and linguist, who received an outstanding education in Europe."
Steiris 2015, "Maximus was born as Michael Trivoles in Arta. His family came probably from Mystras, in Southern Greece. It is indicative that he signed his works as Maximus Grecus Lakedaimon, e.g., from Lakonia, the era around ancient Sparta."
Bolshakoff 1976, p. 39: "Many other people suffered with Vassian, including the remarkable Greek humanist Michael Trivilis, known in Russia as Maximus the Greek. Michael Trivolis was born of a great Byzantine aristocratic family in Arta in Epirus in 1470 [...]"
Vakalopoulos 1976, p. 157: "These included Michael Trivolis from Arta (of the prominent Byzantine family that had taken refuge on Corfu after the Capture), known as Maximos Trivolis after he was tonsured, who studied classical literature and philosophy in Venice, Padua, Ferrara, Florence, and Milan."
Treadgold 1975, p. 60: "Maxim the Greek has been identified as Michael Trivolis, a remarkably learned monk who spent more than half his life in the West. Born at Arta in present-day Greece about 1470, he came from one of the great families of Byzantium, whose members included friends and counselors of emperors and even a patriarch of Constantinople (Callixtus I, 1350–1363)."
Zajc 2011, p. 361: "The life path of Michael Trivolis led from his homeland Greece to the North of Italy where, in the town centres, he made acquaintance with the scholars of the time, and where he was involved in writing, copying and translating activities."
Ryan 2006, p. 64: "They remembered too the more recent attempts to revise the Church Slavonic translations of Greek Church texts by the born-again Greek humanist Michael Trivolis, later known in religion as Maxim, and in Russia as Maxim the Greek."
^abMcGuckin 2010, p. 747: "Maximus the Greek (Michael Trivolis) was an Orthodox writer, translator, and exegete. Born to a noble Greek family, he moved to Italy where he received a classical education."
^Steiris 2015, "Maximus was born as Michael Trivoles in Arta. His family came probably from Mystras, in Southern Greece. It is indicative that he signed his works as Maximus Grecus Lakedaimon, e.g., from Lakonia, the area around ancient Sparta."
^Zakythinos 1951, p. 115: "Les noms des Mavropappas, des Sgouromallis, des Lampoudios, des Léontarios, des Mélikis, des Trivolis reviennent dans les sources. [...] Plus d'un membre de la famille Trivolis s'est distingué à Mistra."
^Akopyan 2020, p. 260: "Born in the town of Arta in Greece, Maximus first came to Italy in 1492. His career in Italy, which lasted for almost fifteen years, was typical for a Greek émigré: he served as a scribe and translator to different patrons, while simultaneously keeping strong links with the Greek diaspora."
^Medlin & Patrinelis 1971, p. 20: "The most prominent cultural contribution, or effort at contribution, made in 16th-century Moscovite Russia by the Greeks came from the unparalleled activities of the learned monk, Maximus Trivolis, historically known [...] Maximus—originally Michael—was born to a rather well-to-do family in Arta, the medieval capital of Epirus, about 1475."
^Powicke 1947, p. 37: "He was born about 1470 at Arta in Epirus; he was of a great Byzantine family, literary, Orthodox, and attached to the fortunes of the Greek imperial house."
^Treadgold 1975, p. 60: "Maxim the Greek has been identified as Michael Trivolis, a remarkably learned monk who spent more than half his life in the West. Born at Arta in present-day Greece about 1470, he came from one of the great families of Byzantium, whose members included friends and counselors of emperors and even a patriarch of Constantinople (Callixtus I, 1350–1363)."
^Rozemond 1966, p. 165: "Zijn naam is Michaël, Spartenser van afkomst [inderdaad was de familie Trivolis uit Mistra, het oude Sparta, afkomstig *]; het is een jonge man met een lange hals'. Codro verzoekt vervolgens Palmieri, Michaël uit te nodigen, weer eens naar."
^Grumel 1944, p. 256: "Au cours de ses recherches, M. Denissof s'est trouvé en présence d'un jeune humaniste grec du nom de Michel Trivolis, dont il a vu la signature de copiste, don't il a compulsé des lettres à des amis ou émules en humanisme. [...] << La naissance de Maxime le Grec est de la ville d'Arta, de père Manuel et d'Irène, chrétiens grecs, philosophes (p. 76). >>"
^Haney 1973, p. 16: "In the fifteenth century one Manuel Trivolis was living with his wife Irene in Arta, while another member of the family, his brother Demetrius, lived on the nearby island of Corfu. Michael Trivolis, the future Maxim the Greek, was born to Manuel [...]"
^Golubinskii 1900, p. 666: "Максимово греково рожение от града Аръты, отца Мануила и Ирины христианех грекох философех."
^Wells 2007, p. 284: "In his midforties when the abbot nominated him for the trip to Russia, he had been born Michael Trivolis (c. 1470) [...] His parents, Manuel and Irene, had emigrated from Constantinople to Arta, where Manuel may have served as a military governor before the city fell to the Turks in 1449."
^abPagani 2009, p. 197: "A quanto ci è dato di sapere della biografia di questo copista, Trivolis era originario di Sparta, tanto che era solito dirsi «Πελοποννησιος εκ Σπαρτης», ebbe contatti molto stretti con l'ambiente di Mistrà e successivamente lavorò per lunghi anni."
^Lambrou 1969, p. 316: "[...] άναγινώσκεται το έξης σημείωμα· 'Ή βίβλος ήδε έγράφη δι οικείας χειρός έμου Δημητρίου Τριβώλη Πελοποννησίου έκ Σπάρτης, τάς διατριβάς ποιοϋντος έν Κερκυραίων νήσω μετά την της ημετέρας πατρίδος άλωσιν, [...]'"
^Graux 1880, p. 92: "Η βίβλος ήδε εγράφη δι' οικείας χειρός έμού Δημητρίου Τριβώλη Πελοποννησίου εκ Σπάρτης, τας διατριβής ποιoύντος εν Κερκυραίων νήσω, την της ημετέρας πατρίδος άλωσιν, ετει [...]"
^Busse 1897, Ammonius De Interpretatione, pp. xi–xii: "Monacensis 222 [...] τούτο το κάλλιστον βιβλίον εμόν εστι κτήμα Δημητρίου Τριβώλη Πελοποννησίου εκ Σπαρτης. επριαμην δε και τουτο μετα την εμης πατριδος αλωσιν της Λακεδαιμονος της ποτ' ευδαιμονος."
^Lorusso 2016, p. 256: "Together with other Greek scribes such as Demetrius Trivolis and Athanasius Chalceopulus, Charitonymus was employed by Bessarion to produce a set of manuscripts containing the whole corpus of Aristotle's works, except the six preparatory treatises devoted to logic (theOrganon)."
^Nicol 1998, p. 158: "Demetrios Trivolis, who called himself 'a Peloponnesian from Sparta', copied a manuscript of Plato's Timaeus in Corfu in 1462, and of the Enneads of Plotinus in Crete in 1465."
^Vakalopoulos 1970, p. 256: "Demetrius Trivolis sedulously recorded in his manuscripts not only the places he visited on his perambulations but also the years that had passed since his 'country's capture.' [...] 'Though no scribe,' he 'came from the aristocratic senatorial class' and considered himself a 'Spartan and Byzantine' or, as he also wrote, 'a Greek and [...]"
^Staikos 1998, p. 290: "On Demetrios Trivolis of Sparta and the quality of his work as a copyist see Oleroff, A., 'Demetrius Trivolis, copiste et bibliophile' in Scriptorium IV (1950) 260–263."
^Bandini 1991, p. 85: "Seconda copia del Marc. gr. [...], frutto della collaborazione fra il Bessarione e Demetrio Trivolis, membro di una nota famiglia di Sparta, attestato nel 1461–62 a Corfù, nel 1464–65 a Gortina, dal 1468–69 a Roma, nell'aprile 1481 di nuovo a Corfù."
^Lyna 1950, p. 261: "Démétrius Trivolis fait preuve d'une solide érudition et de bonnes connaissances philologiques et philosophiques. Il corrige souvent le texte qu'il copie, il y ajoute parfois de scholies de sa composition. [...] Plus tard on retrouve les Trivolis à Mistra (Sparte) dans l'entourage des Paléologues."
^Denissoff 1943, p. 122: "[...] supposer qu'il était apparenté aux Trivolis dont nous avons constaté l'existence à Mistra, l'ancienne Sparte. Or, on l'a vu, tout nous autorise à croire que cette famille Trivolis possédait un haut degré d'instruction. La lettre dont nous avons parlé".
^Sartori 1986, p. 39: "Il Libro d'oro, una sorta di almanacco della nobiltà corfiota, registra la famiglia Trivolis come entrata nell'aristocrazia dell'isola [...] con l'allusione alla nascita spartana del copista e al suo trasferimento a Corfù dopo l'occupazione turca di Sparta."
^abThomas & Chesworth 2015, p. 135: "Maximus the Greek Date of Birth 1475 Place of Birth Arta, Greece Date of Death 1556 Place of Death Sergiyev Posad, Russia BIOGRAPHY Maximus the Greek was born Michael Trivolis in 1475 in Arta, Greece, to a family of Greek aristocrats. In 1492, he moved to Italy, where he studied classical languages, philosophy and theology."
^abSpeake 2018, p. 183: "Laskaris and Ficino were probably the two most influential scholars in Florence at the time, and the young Trivolis was fortunate to number them among his instructors."
^abVakalopoulos 1976, p. 157: "These included Michael Trivolis from Arta (of the prominent Byzantine family that had taken refuge on Corfu after the Capture), known as Maximos Trivolis after he was tonsured, who studied classical literature and philosophy in Venice, Padua, Ferrara, Florence, and Milan."
^Treadgold 1975, p. 60: "Maxim the Greek has been identified as Michael Trivolis, a remarkably learned monk who spent more than half his life in the West. [...] About 1492, he went to Italy and became immersed in the philosophical currents of Neoplatonism which owed much to Marsilio Ficino."
^Akopyan 2020, p. 260: "Born in the town of Arta in Greece, Maximus first came to Italy in 1492. [...] In 1515, he was invited to translate Greek prayer books into Church Slavonic."
^Avenarius 2005, p. 119: "Maxim the Greek, already mentioned in connection with the struggle against the Markion heresy (compare VIII. 3.2), was a Greek monk, who came to Russia in 1518 at the invitation of Prince Basil III to participate in correction of the Russian liturgical books [...]"
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