Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus "Thrax" (c. 173 – 238, also spelled asMaximin in some English modern texts) was aRoman emperor from 235 to 238. Born ofThracian origin – given the nicknameThrax ("the Thracian") – he rose up through the military ranks, ultimately holding high command in the army of theRhine under EmperorSeverus Alexander. After Severus was murdered in 235, Maximinus was proclaimed emperor by the army, beginning theCrisis of the Third Century, a 50-year period of instability and civil war. He is often remembered for his unusual height, although the veracity of this is disputed.
Maximinus was the commander of theLegio IVItalica whenSeverus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in 235. The Pannonian army then elected Maximinus emperor.[6]
In 238 (which came to be known as theYear of the Six Emperors), a senatorial revolt broke out, leading to the successive proclamation ofGordian I,Gordian II,Pupienus,Balbinus, andGordian III as emperors in opposition to Maximinus. Maximinus advanced on Rome to put down the revolt, but was halted atAquileia, where he was assassinated by disaffected elements of theLegio IIParthica.
Maximinus is described by several ancient sources, though onlyHerodian'sRoman History is contemporary. He was a so-calledbarracks emperor of the 3rd century;[7] his rule is often considered to mark the beginning of theCrisis of the Third Century. Maximinus was the first emperor who hailed neither from thesenatorial class nor from theequestrian class.
Herodian writes that Maximinus was ofThraco-Roman origin.[11] According to the notoriously unreliableHistoria Augusta, he was born inThrace orMoesia to aGothic father and anAlanic mother;[12] however, the supposed parentage is a highly unlikely anachronism, as the Goths are known to have moved toThracia from a different place of origin much later in history and their residence in theDanubian area is not otherwise attested until after Maximinus' death. British historianRonald Syme, writing that "the word 'Gothia' should have sufficed for condemnation" of the passage in theHistoria Augusta, felt that the burden of evidence fromHerodian,Syncellus and elsewhere pointed to Maximinus having been born inMoesia Superior orMoesia Inferior.[13]
The references to his "Gothic" ancestry might refer to aThracianGetic origin (the two populations were often confused by later writers, most notably byJordanes in hisGetica), as suggested by the paragraphs describing how "he was singularly beloved by the Getae, moreover, as if he were one of themselves" and how he spoke "almost pureThracian".[14] On the contrary, Bernard Bachrach suggests that theHistoria Augusta's use of a term not used in Maximinus time – "Gothia" – is hardly sufficient cause to dismiss its account. After all, the names it gives for Maximinus' parents are legitimate Alan and Gothic appellations. Hence, Bachrach argues, the most straightforward explanation is that the author of theHistoria Augusta relied on a legitimate third century source, but substituted its terminology for that current in his own day.[15] Accordingly, Maximinus' ancestry remains an open question.
His background was, in any case, that of a provincial of low birth, and he was seen by theSenate as a barbarian, not even a true Roman, despiteCaracalla’s edict granting citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire.[16] According to theAugustan History, he was ashepherd andbandit leader before joining theImperial Roman army, causing historianBrent Shaw to comment that a man who would have been "in other circumstances aGodfather, [...] became emperor of Rome."[17] In many ways, Maximinus was similar to the later Thraco-Roman emperors of the 3rd–5th century (Aureolus,Galerius,Licinius,Leo I, etc.), elevating themselves, via a military career, from the condition of a commonsoldier in one of theRoman legions to the foremost positions of political power. He joined the army during the reign ofSeptimius Severus.[18]
Silverdenarius struck inRome from February to December 236 AD; ref.: RIC 4
Maximinus began his rule by eliminating the close advisors of Alexander.[22] His suspicions may have been justified; two plots against Maximinus were foiled.[23] The first was during a campaign across theRhine, when a group of officers, supported by influential senators, plotted to destroy a bridge across the river, in order to strand Maximinus in hostile territory.[24] They planned to elect senatorMagnus emperor afterwards, but the conspiracy was discovered and the conspirators executed. The second plot involvedMesopotamian archers who were loyal to Alexander. They planned to elevateQuartinus, but their leader Macedo changed sides and murdered Quartinus instead, although this was not enough to save his own life.[25]
The accession of Maximinus is commonly seen as the beginning of theCrisis of the Third Century (also known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis"), the commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by various simultaneous crises.
Maximinus' first campaign was against the Alemanni, whom he defeated despite heavy Roman casualties in a swamp in theAgri Decumates.[26] After the victory, Maximinus took the titleGermanicus Maximus,[16] raised his son Maximus to the rank ofcaesar andprinceps iuventutis, and deified his late wife Paulina.[22] Maximinus may have launched a second campaign deep into Germania, defeating a Germanic tribe beyond theWeser in theBattle at the Harzhorn.[27][28] Securing the German frontier, at least for a while, Maximinus then set up a winter encampment atSirmium inPannonia,[16] and from that supply base fought theDacians and theSarmatians during the winter of 235–236.[22]
In 2019 Israeli researchers translated a milestone found in the Moshav Ramot village in theGolan Heights. They were able to identify the name of Maximinus on the milestone. The roads themselves were much older, suggesting that a renovation project was undertaken during his rule on those roads.[29]
Early in 238, in the province ofAfrica, a full-scale revolt broke out. The landowners armed their clients and their agricultural workers and entered Thysdrus (modernEl Djem), where they murdered the offending official and his bodyguards[30] and proclaimed the aged governor of the province, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus (Gordian I), and his son,Gordian II, as co-emperors.[31] The Senate in Rome switched allegiance, gave both Gordian and Gordian II the title ofAugustus, and set about rousing the provinces in support of the pair.[32] Maximinus, wintering atSirmium, immediately assembled his army and advanced on Rome, the Pannonian legions leading the way.[22]
Meanwhile, in Africa, the revolt had not gone as planned. The province of Africa was bordered on the west by the province ofNumidia, whose governor,Capelianus, nursed a long-standing grudge against the Gordians and controlled the only legionary unit (IIIAugusta) in the area.[33] Gordian II was killed in the fighting and, on hearing this, Gordian I hanged himself with his belt.[34]
When the African revolt collapsed, the Senate found itself in great jeopardy.[35] Having shown clear support for the Gordians, they could expect no clemency from Maximinus when he reached Rome. In this predicament, they remained determined to defy Maximinus and elected two of their number,Pupienus andBalbinus, as co-emperors.[22] When the Roman mob heard that the Senate had selected two men from thepatrician class, men whom the ordinary people held in no great regard, they protested, showering the imperial cortège with sticks and stones.[36] A faction in Rome preferred Gordian's grandson (Gordian III), and there was severe street fighting. The co-emperors had no option but to compromise, and, sending for the grandson of the elder Gordian they appointed himcaesar.[37]
Maximinus marched on Rome,[38] butAquileia closed its gates against him. His troops became disaffected duringthe unexpected siege of the city, at which time they suffered from starvation.[39] In about May or June 238,[a] soldiers of theIIParthica in his camp assassinated him, his son, and his chief ministers.[35]
Pupienus and Balbinus then became undisputed co-emperors. However, they mistrusted each other, and ultimately both were murdered by the Praetorian Guard, makingGordian III sole surviving emperor. Unable to reach Rome, Thrax never visited the capital city during his reign.[40]
Maximinus doubled the pay of soldiers;[18] this act, along with virtually continuous warfare, required higher taxes. Tax collectors began to resort to violent methods and illegal confiscations, further alienating the governing class from everyone else.[22]
According to early church historianEusebius of Caesarea, the Imperial household of Maximinus' predecessor, Alexander, had contained manyChristians. Eusebius states that, hating his predecessor's household, Maximinus ordered that the leaders of the churches should be put to death.[41][42] According to Eusebius, this persecution of 235 sentHippolytus of Rome andPope Pontian into exile, but other evidence suggests that the persecutions of 235 were local to the provinces where they occurred rather than happening under the direction of the Emperor.[43]
According toHistoria Augusta, which modern scholars however treat with extreme caution:
The Romans could bear his barbarities no longer – the way in which he called up informers and incited accusers, invented false offences, killed innocent men, condemned all whoever came to trial, reduced the richest men to utter poverty and never sought money anywhere save in some other's ruin, put many generals and many men of consular rank to death for no offence, carried others about in waggons without food and drink, and kept others in confinement, in short neglected nothing which he thought might prove effectual for cruelty – and, unable to suffer these things longer, they rose against him in revolt.[44]
Ancient sources, ranging from the unreliableHistoria Augusta to accounts ofHerodian, speak of Maximinus as a man of significantly greater size than his contemporaries.[47][48] He is, moreover, depicted in ancient imagery as a man with a prominent brow, nose, and jaw (symptoms ofacromegaly).[49]
According toHistoria Augusta, "he was of such size, so Cordus reports, that men said he was eight-feet, one finger (c. 2.4 metres) in height".[50] It is very likely however that this is one of the many exaggerations in theHistoria Augusta, and is immediately suspect due to its citation of "Cordus", one of several fictitious authorities the work cites.[51]
Although not going into the supposedly detailed portions ofHistoria Augusta, the historian Herodian, a contemporary of Maximinus, mentions him as a man of greater size, noting that: "He was in any case a man of such frightening appearance and colossal size that there is no obvious comparison to be drawn with any of the best-trained Greek athletes or warrior elite of the barbarians."[52]
Some historians interpret the stories on Maximinus's unusual height (as well as other information on his appearance, like excessive sweating and superhuman strength) as popular stereotyped attributes which do no more than intentionally turn him into a stylized embodiment of the barbarian bandit[53] or emphasize the admiration and aversion that the image of the soldier evoked in the civilian population.[54]
^abHis death is sometimes dated to 24 June. This is based on the "3 years 4 months 2 days" reign-length given by theChronograph of 354. Some interpret this as "3 years 3 months 2 days", which gives 24 June reckoning from 22 March 235, the supposed date of Alexander's death (the exact date is disputed).[1] Maximinus' officialdies imperii (day of accession) was almost certainly 23 March, but the figures of theChronograph can not be trusted as they are often corrupted, inaccurate or made-up.[2]Papyri show that the Gordians were recognized in Egypt between 7 April and 13 June. Maximinus is not mentioned again, as he was declared an enemy by the Senate. Peachin argues that he died in early June,[3] but all we know is that he died during the reign of Pupienus and Balbinus, between May and August according to papyri.[1]
^Bachrach, Bernard S.A History of the Alans in the West: From Their First Appearance in the Sources of Classical Antiquity through the Early Middle Ages. 14: n.28.
^Drinkwater, John (2007). "Maximinus to Diocletian and the 'Crisis'". In Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (eds.).The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. XII (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 32.
^Eusebius."Church History".Book 6, Chapter 28. New Advent. Retrieved25 April 2014.
^Papandrea, James L. (23 January 2012).Reading the Early Church Fathers: From the Didache to Nicaea. Paulist Press.ISBN978-0809147519.
^Graeme Clark, "Third-Century Christianity", in theCambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., volume 12:The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337, ed. Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 623.
Jan Burian:Maximinus Thrax. Sein Bild bei Herodian und in der Historia Augusta, in:Philologus 132, 1988.
Lukas de Blois:The onset of crisis in the first half of the third century A.D., in: K.-P. Johne et al. (eds.),Deleto paene imperio Romano, Stuttgart 2006.
Karlheinz Dietz:Senatus contra principem. Untersuchungen zur senatorischen Opposition gegen Kaiser Maximinus Thrax, Munich 1980.
Frank Kolb:Der Aufstand der Provinz Africa Proconsularis im Jahr 238 n. Chr.: die wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Hintergründe, in:Historia 26, 1977.
Adolf Lippold:Kommentar zur Vita Maximini Dua der Historia Augusta, Bonn 1991.
Loriot, Xavier (1975).Les premières années de la grand crise du IIIe siècle: De l'avènement de Maximin de Thrace (235) à la mort de Gordien III (244).Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.2. B.:De Gruyter. pp. 657–787.
