The country's name derives fromMauretania, theLatin name for a region in the ancient Maghreb. It extended from central present-day Algeria to the Atlantic.Berbers occupied what is now Mauritania by the beginning of the 3rd century AD. Groups ofArab tribes migrated to this area in the late 7th century, bringing with themIslam,Arab culture, and theArabic language. In the early 20th century, Mauritania wascolonized by France as part ofFrench West Africa. It achieved independence in 1960. However, the country has since experienced recurrent coups and periods of military dictatorship. The2008 Mauritanian coup d'état was led by GeneralMohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, who won subsequent presidential elections in2009 and2014.[11] He was succeeded by GeneralMohamed Ould Ghazouani following the2019 elections, in what was considered the country's first peaceful transition of power since independence.[12] Mauritania has a poorhuman rights record, particularly because of its perpetuation ofslavery; the 2018Global Slavery Index estimates there are about 90,000 slaves in the country (or 2.1% of the population).[13][14][15]
Despite an abundance of natural resources, Mauritaniaremains poor;its economy is based primarily onagriculture and fishing. Mauritania is culturally and politically part of theArab world. It is a member of theArab League and Arabic is the official language. The official religion isIslam, and almost all inhabitants areSunni Muslims. Despite its prevailingArab identity, Mauritanian society is multiethnic. TheBidhan, or so-called "white moors", make up 30% of the population,[16] while theHaratin, or so-called "black moors", comprise 40%.[16] Both groups reflect a fusion ofArab-Berber ethnicity, language, and culture. The remaining 30% of the population comprises varioussub-Saharan ethnic groups.
Mauritania takes its name from the ancientBerber kingdom that flourished beginning in the third century BC and later became the Roman province ofMauretania, which flourished into the seventh century AD. The two territories do not overlap, though; historical Mauretania was considerably farther north than modern Mauritania, as it was spread out along the entire western half of theMediterranean coast of Africa. The term "Mauretania", in turn, derives from the Greek and Romanexonym for the Berber peoples of the kingdom, theMauri people. The word "Mauri" is also the root of the name for theMoors.[17]
It was more commonly known to Arab geographers as Bilad Chinqit (Arabic:بلاد شنقيط), "the land ofChinguetti".[18] The term "Mauritanie occidentale" was officially used in a ministerial circular in 1899; it is based on a proposal byXavier Coppolani, a French military and colonial leader, who was instrumental in the colonial occupation and creation of modern-day Mauritania. This term, employed by the French, gradually replaced other designations previously used for referring to the country.[19][20]
The ancient tribes of Mauritania wereBerber,Niger-Congo,[21] andBafour peoples. The Bafour were among the first Saharan peoples to abandon their previously nomadic lifestyle and adopt a primarily agricultural one. In response to the gradual desiccation of theSahara, they eventually migrated southward.[22] Many of the Berber tribes have claimed to haveYemeni (and sometimes otherArab) origins. Little evidence supports those claims; however, a 2000DNA study of the Yemeni people suggested some ancient connection might exist between the peoples.[23]
TheUmayyads were the firstArab Muslims to enter Mauritania. During theIslamic conquests, they made incursions into Mauritania and were present in the region by the end of the seventh century.[24] ManyBerber tribes in Mauritania fled the arrival of the Arabs to theGao region inMali.[24]
Other peoples also migrated south past the Sahara and intoWest Africa. In the 11th century, several nomadic Berber confederations in the desert regions overlapping present-day Mauritania joined to form theAlmoravid movement. They expanded north and south, spawning an important empire that stretched from the Sahara to theIberian Peninsula inEurope.[25][26] According to a disputed Arab tradition,[27][28] the Almoravids traveled south and conquered the ancient and extensiveGhana Empire around 1076.[29]
From 1644 to 1674, the indigenous peoples of the area that is modern Mauritania made what became their final effort to repel the YemeniMaqil Arabs who were invading their territory. This effort, which was unsuccessful, is known as theChar Bouba War. The invaders were led by theBeni Hassan tribe. The descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became theupper stratum ofMoorish society.Hassaniya, a bedouinArabic dialect named for the Beni Hassan, became the dominant language among the largelynomadic population.[30]
Starting in the late 19th century, Francelaid claim to the territories of present-day Mauritania, from theSenegal River area northwards. In 1901,Xavier Coppolani took charge of the imperial mission.[31] Through a combination of strategic alliances withZawaya tribes and military pressure on theHassane warrior nomads, he managed to extend French rule over the Mauritanianemirates. Beginning in 1903 and 1904, the French armies succeeded in occupyingTrarza,Brakna, andTagant. However the northern emirate ofAdrar held out longer; the emirate was aided by the anticolonial rebellion (orjihad) ofshaykhMaa al-Aynayn and by insurgents from Tagant and the other occupied regions. In 1904, France organized the territory of Mauritania, and it became part ofFrench West Africa, first as aprotectorate and later as a colony. In 1912, the French armies defeated Adrar, and incorporated it into the territory of Mauritania.[32]
French rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to interclan warfare. During the colonial period 90% of the population remained nomadic. Gradually many individuals belonging to sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to migrate into Mauritania. Until 1902, the capital of French West Africa was in modern-day Senegal. It was first established atSaint-Louis and later, from 1902 to 1960, in Dakar. When Senegal gained its independence that year, France chose Nouakchott as the site of the new capital of Mauritania. At the time, Nouakchott was little more than a fortified village (orksar).[33]
After Mauritanian independence, larger numbers of indigenoussub-Saharan African peoples (Haalpulaar,Soninke, andWolof) migrated into it, most of them settling in the area north of theSenegal River. Many of these new arrivals had been educated in the French language and customs, and became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state. At the same time, the French were militarily suppressing the most intransigent Hassane tribes in the north. French pressure on those tribes altered the existing balance of power, and new conflicts arose between the southern populations and the Moors.[34][clarification needed][incomprehensible]
The greatSahel droughts of the early 1970s caused massive devastation in Mauritania, exacerbating problems of poverty and conflict. The arabized dominant elites reacted to changing circumstances, and toArab nationalist calls from abroad, by increasing pressure toarabize many aspects of Mauritanian life, such as law and the education system. This was also a reaction to the consequences of the French domination under the colonial rule. Various models for maintaining the country's cultural diversity have been suggested, but none have been successfully implemented.[citation needed]
This ethnic discord was evident during intercommunal violence that broke out in April 1989 (the "Mauritania–Senegal Border War"); the conflict has since subsided. Mauritania expelled some 70,000 sub-Saharan African Mauritanians in the late 1980s.[35] Ethnic tensions and the sensitive issue of slavery – past and, in some areas, present – are still powerful themes in the country's political debate. A significant number from all groups seek a more diverse, pluralistic society.[citation needed]
In 1976, Mauritania, along with Morocco, annexed the territory of Western Sahara. After several military losses to thePolisario – heavily armed and supported by Algeria, theregional power and rival to Morocco – Mauritania withdrew in 1979. Its claims were taken over by Morocco. Due to economic weakness, Mauritania has been a negligible player in the territorial dispute, with its official position being that it wishes for an expedient solution that is mutually agreeable to all parties. While most of Western Sahara has been occupied by Morocco, theUN still considers the Western Sahara a territory that needs to express its wishes with respect to statehood. A referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, is still supposed to be held at some point in the future, under UN auspices, to determine whether or not the indigenousSahrawis wish to be independent, as theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, or to be part of Morocco.[citation needed]
In 1960, Mauritania became an independent nation.[37] In 1964, PresidentMoktar Ould Daddah, originally installed by the French, formalized Mauritania as aone-party state with a newconstitution, setting up an authoritarian presidential regime. Daddah's ownParti du Peuple Mauritanien became the ruling organization in aone-party system. The President justified this on the grounds that Mauritania was not ready for western stylemultiparty democracy. Under this one-party constitution, Daddah was re-elected in uncontested elections in 1976 and 1978.
ColonelMohamed Khouna Ould Haidallah soon emerged as its strongman. By giving up all claims toWestern Sahara, he found peace with the Polisario and improved relations with its main backer,Algeria, but relations withMorocco, the other party to the conflict, and itsEuropean allyFrance, deteriorated. Instability continued, and Haidallah's ambitious reform attempts foundered. His regime was plagued by attempted coups and intrigue within the military establishment.[citation needed] It became increasingly contested due to his harsh and uncompromising measures against opponents; many dissidents were jailed, and some executed.
Slavery in Mauritania still exists, despite being officially abolished three timesː 1905, 1981, and again in August 2007. Anti-slavery activists are persecuted, imprisoned and tortured.[38][39][40]
In December 1984,Haidallah was deposed by ColonelMaaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya, who, while retaining tight military control, relaxed the political climate. Ould Taya moderated Mauritania's previous pro-Algerian stance, and re-established ties withMorocco during the late 1980s. He deepened these ties during the late 1990s and early 2000s, as part of Mauritania's drive to attract support from Western states and Western-aligned Arab states. Its position on theWestern Sahara conflict has been, since the 1980s, one of strict neutrality.
TheMauritania–Senegal Border War started as a result of a conflict inDiawara between Moorish Mauritanian herders andSenegalese farmers over grazing rights.[43] On 9 April 1989, Mauritanian guards killed two Senegalese.[44]
Following the incident, severalriots erupted inBakel,Dakar and other towns inSenegal, directed against the mainly Arabized Mauritanians who dominated the local retail business. The rioting, adding to the already existing tensions, led to a campaign of terror against blackMauritanians;[45] black Mauritanians are often seen as "Senegalese" by the Bidān (White Moors), regardless of their nationality. As low scale conflict with Senegal continued into 1990–91, the Mauritanian government engaged in and encouraged acts of violence and seizures of property directed against the Halpularen ethnic group. The tension culminated in an international airlift agreed to by Senegal and Mauritania under international pressure to prevent further violence. The Mauritanian Government expelled thousands of black Mauritanians. Most of these so-called "Senegalese" had few or no ties with Senegal, and many have been repatriated from Senegal andMali after 2007.[46] The exact number of expulsions is not known; however, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that, as of June 1991, 52,995 Mauritanian refugees were living in Senegal and at least 13,000 in Mali.[47]: 27
Opposition parties were legalized, and a new Constitution approved in 1991 which put an end to formal military rule. But PresidentOuld Taya's election wins were dismissed as fraudulent by some opposition groups.[citation needed]
In the late 1980s, Ould Taya had established close co-operation withIraq, and pursued a stronglyArab nationalist line. Mauritania grew increasingly isolated internationally, and tensions with Western countries grew dramatically after it took a pro-Iraqi position during the1991 Gulf War.[citation needed]
During the mid-to late 1990s, Mauritania shifted its foreign policy to one of increased co-operation with theUnited States andEurope. It was rewarded with diplomatic normalization and aid projects. On 28 October 1999, Mauritania joinedEgypt,Palestine, andJordan as the only members of theArab League to officiallyrecognize Israel. Ould Taya also started co-operating with the U.S. in anti-terrorism activities, a policy that was criticized by some human rights organizations.[48][49]
During the regime of President Ould Taya, Mauritania developed economically,oil was discovered in 2001 by theWoodside Company.[50]
On 3 August 2005, a military coup led by ColonelEly Ould Mohamed Vall ended PresidentMaaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya's 21 years of rule.[51] Taking advantage of Ould Taya's attendance at the funeral of SaudiKing Fahd, the military, including members of the presidential guard (BASEP), seized control of key points in the capitalNouakchott. The coup proceeded without loss of life.[52] Calling themselves theMilitary Council for Justice and Democracy, the officers released the following statement:
The national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority, which our people have suffered from during the past years.[53]
The Military Council later issued another statement naming Colonel Ould Mohamed Vall as president and director of the national police force, theSûreté Nationale. Vall, once regarded as a firm ally of the now-ousted president, had aided Ould Taya in the coup that had originally brought him to power, and had later served as his Security Chief. Sixteen other officers were listed as members of the council.
Though cautiously watched by the international community,[54] the coup came to be generally accepted, with the militaryjunta organizing elections within a promised two-year timeline. In a referendum on 26 June 2006, 97% of Mauritanians approved a new constitution that limited the duration of a president's stay in office. The leader of thejunta, Col. Vall, promised to abide by the referendum and relinquish power peacefully. Mauritania's establishment of relations with Israel – it was one of only three Arab states to recognize Israel – was maintained by the new regime, despite widespread criticism from the opposition. Parliamentary and municipal elections in Mauritania took place on 19 November and 3 December 2006.
Mauritania's first fully democratic presidential elections took place on 11 March 2007. The elections effected the final transfer from military to civilian rule following the military coup in 2005. This was the first time since Mauritania gained independence in 1960 that it elected a president in a multi-candidate election.[55]
On 6 August 2008, the head of the presidential guards took over the president's palace in Nouakchott, a day after 48 lawmakers from the ruling party resigned in protest of President Abdallahi's policies. The Army surrounded key government facilities, including the state television building, after the president fired senior officers, one of them the head of the presidential guards.[56] The President, Prime MinisterYahya Ould Ahmed Waghef, and Mohamed Ould R'zeizim, Minister of Internal Affairs, were arrested.
The coup was coordinated by GeneralMohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, former chief of staff of the Mauritanian Army and head of the presidential guard, who had recently been fired. Mauritania's presidential spokesman, Abdoulaye Mamadouba, said the President, Prime Minister, and Interior Minister had been arrested by renegade senior Mauritanian army officers and were being held under house arrest at the presidential palace in the capital.[57][58][59]
In the apparently successful and bloodless coup, Abdallahi's daughter, Amal Mint Cheikh Abdallahi, said: "The security agents of the BASEP (Presidential Security Battalion) came to our home and took away my father."[60] The coup plotters, all dismissed in a presidential decree shortly beforehand, included Ould Abdel Aziz, GeneralMuhammad Ould Al-Ghazwani, General Philippe Swikri, and Brigadier General (Aqid) Ahmed Ould Bakri.[61]
A Mauritanian lawmaker, Mohammed Al Mukhtar, claimed that many of the country's people supported the takeover of a government that had become "an authoritarian regime" under a president who had "marginalized the majority in parliament".[62] However, Abdel Aziz's regime was isolated internationally, and became subject to diplomatic sanctions and the cancellation of some aid projects. Domestically, a group of parties coalesced around Abdallahi to continue protesting the coup, which caused the junta to ban demonstrations and crack down on opposition activists. International and internal pressure eventually forced the release of Abdallahi, who was instead placed under house arrest in his home village. The new government broke off relations with Israel.[63]
After the coup, Abdel Aziz insisted on holding new presidential elections to replace Abdallahi; however, Aziz was forced to reschedule them due to internal and international opposition. During the spring of 2009, thejunta negotiated an understanding with some opposition figures and international parties. As a result, Abdallahi formally resigned under protest, as it became clear that some opposition forces had defected from him and most international players, notably including France and Algeria, now aligned with Abdel Aziz. The United States continued to criticize the coup, but did not actively oppose the elections.
Abdallahi's resignation allowed theelection of Abdel Aziz as civilian president, on 18 July, by a 52% majority.
Many of Abdallahi's former supporters criticized this as a political ploy and refused to recognize the results. Despite complaints, the elections were almost unanimously accepted by Western, Arab and African countries, which lifted sanctions and resumed relations with Mauritania. By late summer, Abdel Aziz appeared to have secured his position and to have gained widespread international and internal support. Some figures, such as Senate chairmanMessaoud Ould Boulkheir, continued to refuse the new order and call for Abdel Aziz's resignation.
In February 2011, the waves of theArab Spring spread to Mauritania, where thousands of people took to the streets of the capital.[64]
In November 2014, Mauritania was invited as a non-member guest nation to the G20 summit inBrisbane.[65]
In June 2021, former president Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz was arrested amidst a corruption probe into allegations of embezzlement.[69] In December 2023, Aziz was sentenced to 5 years in prison for corruption.[70]
In early 2024, a sudden increase of the number of refugees arriving on theCanary Islands by boat prompted a visit fromEuropean Commission presidentUrsula von der Leyen and Spanish prime ministerPedro Sánchez. The EU subsequently signed a €210M deal with Mauritania to reduce passage of African migrants through its territory towards the Canary Islands. The UN estimates that 150,000 people from Mali have fled to Mauritania.[71]
In June 2024, President Ghazouani wasre-elected for a second term.[72]
A series of scarps face southwest, longitudinally bisecting theseplains in the center of the country. The scarps also separate a series ofsandstoneplateaus, the highest of which is theAdrar Plateau, reaching an elevation of 500 metres (1,640 ft).[75] Spring-fedoases lie at the foot of some of the scarps. Isolated peaks, often rich in minerals, rise above the plateaus; the smaller peaks are called guelbs and the larger ones kedias. The concentricGuelb er Richat is a prominent feature of the north-central region.Kediet ej Jill, near the city ofZouîrât, has an elevation of 915 metres (3,000 ft) and is the highest peak. The plateaus gradually descend toward the northeast to the barrenEl Djouf, or "Empty Quarter," a vast region of large sand dunes that merges into the Sahara Desert. To the west, between the ocean and the plateaus, are alternating areas of clayey plains (regs) and sand dunes (ergs), some of which shift from place to place, gradually moved by high winds. The dunes generally increase in size and mobility toward the north.
TheRichat Structure, dubbed the "Eye of the Sahara",[77] is a formation of rock resembling concentric circles in theAdrar Plateau, nearOuadane, west–central Mauritania.
Mauritania's wildlife has two main influences as the country lies in two biogeographic realms, the north sits in thePalearctic which extends south from theSahara to roughly 19° north and the south in theAfrotropic realms. Additionally Mauritania is important for numerousbirds which migrate from the Palearctic to winter there.
Most of the north to about 19° north is regarded as being in the Palearctic, and is largely made up of the Sahara Desert and adjacent littoral habitats. South of this is regarded as being in the Afrotropical biogeographic realm, which means that species of a predominantly Afrotropical distribution dominate thefauna. South of the Sahara is theSouth Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion which integrates into the Sahelian acacia savanna ecoregion. The southernmost part of the country lies in theWest Sudanian savanna ecoregion.
Until August 2017, the parliament had an upper house, theSenate. The Senate had 56 members, 53 members elected for a six-year term by municipal councilors with a third renewed every two years and three elected by Mauritanians abroad. It was abolished in 2017 after areferendum. President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz called for the referendum in August 2017 after the Senate rejected his proposals to change the constitution.[78]
TheArmed Forces of Mauritania are the defense force of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, having anarmy,navy,air force,gendarmerie, and presidential guard. Other services include the National Guard and national police, though they both are subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior. As of 2018, the Mauritanian armed forces budget constituted 3.9% of the country's GDP.
The government bureaucracy is composed of traditional ministries, special agencies, andparastatal companies. The Ministry of Interior spearheads a system of regional governors and prefects modeled on the French system of local administration. Under this system, Mauritania is divided into 15 regions (wilaya orrégions).
Control is tightly concentrated in the executive branch of the central government, but a series of national and municipal elections since 1992 have produced limited decentralization. These regions are subdivided into 44departments (moughataa).[83]
The regions and capital district and their capitals are:
A clickable map of Mauritania exhibiting its twelve regions and one capital district.
Despite being rich in natural resources, Mauritania has a low GDP.[84] A majority of the population still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood, even though most of thenomads and many subsistencefarmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in the 1970s and 1980s.[84] Mauritania has extensive deposits ofiron ore, which account for almost 50% of total exports.Gold andcopper mining companies are openingmines in the interior such asFirawa mine. The country's gold production in 2015 is 9 metric tons.[85]
In recent years[which?],drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a buildup of foreign debt. In March 1999, the government signed an agreement with a jointWorld Bank-International Monetary Fund mission on a $54 million enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF).[citation needed] Privatization remains one of the key issues. Mauritania is unlikely to meet ESAF's annual GDP growth objectives of 4–5%.[citation needed]
Oil was discovered in Mauritania in 2001 in the offshoreChinguetti Field. Although potentially significant for the Mauritanian economy, its overall influence is difficult to predict. Mauritania has been described as a "desperately poor desert nation, which straddles theArab andAfrican worlds and is Africa's newest, if small-scale,oil producer".[86] There may be additional oil reserves inland in theTaoudeni Basin, although the harsh environment will make extraction expensive.[87]
As of 2021[update], Mauritania hada population of about 4.3 million, roughly a third concentrated in thecapital andlargest city,Nouakchott, on theAtlantic coast. The local population is composed of three mainethnicities:Bidhan or white Moors,Haratin or black moors, and West Africans. 30% are Bidhan, 40% are Haratin, and 30% others (mostly Black Sub-Saharans). Local statistics bureau estimations indicate that the Bidhan represent around 30% of citizens. They speakHassaniya Arabic and are primarily ofArab-Berber origin. The Haratin constitute roughly 35% of the population, with many estimates putting them at around 40%. They are descendants of the original inhabitants of the Tassili n'Ajjer and Acacus Mountain sites during theEpipalaeolithic era.[90][91] The remaining 30% of the population largely consists of various ethnic groups ofWest African descent. Among these are theNiger-Congo-speakingHalpulaar (Fulbe),Soninke,Bambara andWolof.[1]
Mauritania is almost 100%Muslim, with most inhabitants adhering to theSunni denomination.[1] TheSufi orders, theTijaniyah and theQadiriyyah, have great influence not only in the country, but inMorocco,Algeria,Senegal, and other neighboring countries as well. TheRoman Catholic Diocese of Nouakchott, founded in 1965, serves the 4,500 Catholics in Mauritania (mostly foreign residents from West Africa and Europe). In 2020, the number ofChristians in Mauritania was estimated at 10,000.[92]
There are extreme restrictions on freedom of religion and belief in Mauritania; it is one of at least seven countries in the world that criminalize atheism withcapital punishment.[93]
On 27 April 2018, theNational Assembly passed a law that makes the death penalty mandatory for anyone convicted of "blasphemous speech" and acts deemed "sacrilegious". The new law eliminates the possibility under article 306 of substituting prison terms for the death penalty for certain apostasy-related crimes if the offender promptly repents. The law also provides for a sentence of up to two years in prison and a fine of up to 600,000Ouguiyas (about €14,600) for "offending public indecency and Islamic values" and for "breaching Allah's prohibitions" or assisting in their breach.[94]
Arabic is the official and national language of Mauritania. The local spoken variety, known asHassaniya, contains manyBerber words and significantly differs from theModern Standard Arabic that is used for official communication.Pulaar,Soninke, andWolof also serve as national languages.[1] Despite having no official status,French is used as an administrative language and as a medium of instruction in schools.[95][96] It is also widely used in the media, business, and among educated classes.[97]
As of 2011,life expectancy at birth was 61.14 years.[1] Per capita expenditure on health was US$43 (PPP) in 2004.[98] Public expenditure was 2% of the GDP in 2004 and private 0.9% of the GDP in 2004.[98] In the early 21st century, there were 11 physicians per 100,000 people.[98] Infant mortality is 60.42 deaths/1,000 live births (2011 estimate).[98]
The obesity rate among Mauritanian women is high, in part due to the traditional standards of beauty in some regions, whereforced feeding practices such as theleblouh (gavage in French) encourage weight gain, and obese women are considered beautiful while thin women are considered sickly.[99]
Since 1999, all teaching in the first year of primary school is inModern Standard Arabic;French is introduced in the second year, and is used to teach all scientific courses.[100] The use ofEnglish is increasing.[101]
Mauritania has theUniversity of Nouakchott and other institutions of higher education, but the majority of highly educatedMauritanians have studied outside the country. Public expenditure on education was at 10.1% of 2000–2007 government expenditure.[98] Mauritania was ranked 126th out of 139 in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[102]
Following the 2008 coup, the military government of Mauritania faced severe international sanctions and internal unrest.Amnesty International accused it of practicing coordinated torture against criminal and political detainees.[105] Amnesty has accused the Mauritanian legal system, both before and after the 2008 coup, of functioning with complete disregard for legal procedure, fair trial, or humane imprisonment. The organization has said that the Mauritanian government has practiced institutionalized and continuous use of torture throughout its post-independence history, under all its leaders.[106][107][108]
Amnesty International in 2008 alleged that torture was common in Mauritania, stating that its usage is "deeply anchored in the culture of the security forces", which use it "as a system of investigation and repression". Forms of torture employed include cigarette burns, electric shocks and sexual violence, stated Amnesty International.[109][110] In 2014, theUnited States Department of State identified torture by Mauritanian law enforcement as one of the "central human rights problems" in the country.[111]Juan E. Méndez, an independent expert on human rights from theUnited Nations, reported in 2016 that legal protections against torture were present but not applied in Mauritania, pointing to an "almost total absence of investigations into allegations of torture".[112][113]
According to the U.S. State Department2010 Human Rights Report,[114] abuses in Mauritania include:
Slavery persists in Mauritania, despite it being outlawed.[38] It is the result of a historicalcaste system, resulting in descent-based slavery.[38][116] It is estimated that those enslaved are generally darker-skinnedHaratin, with their owners often being lighter-skinned Moors.[116] Although slavery also exists among theSub-Saharan Mauritanians part of the population, with some Sub-Saharan Mauritanians owning slaves of the sameskin color than them, and some estimates even stating that slavery is currently more widespread in that part of the population, in the south of the country.[117]
In 1905, the French colonial administration declared an end of slavery in Mauritania, with very little success.[118] Mauritania ratified in 1961 theForced Labour Convention, having already enshrined abolition of slavery, albeit implicitly, in its 1959 constitution;[117] although nominally abolished in 1981 by presidential decree, acriminal law against the ownership of slaves was enacted only in 2007.
TheU.S. State Department2010 Human Rights Report states, "Government efforts were not sufficient to enforce the antislavery law. No cases have been successfully prosecuted under the antislavery law despite the fact that de facto slavery exists in Mauritania."[114]
In 2012, it was estimated by aCNN documentary that 10% to 20% of the population of Mauritania (between 340,000 and 680,000 people) live in slavery.[119] That estimation is however considered by several academics to be grossly overstated.[117]Modern-day slavery still exists in different forms in Mauritania.[120] According to some estimates, thousands of Mauritaniansare still enslaved.[121][122][123] A 2012 CNN report, "Slavery's Last Stronghold", documents the ongoing slave-owning cultures.[124] This social discrimination is applied chiefly against the "black Moors" (Haratin) in the northern part of the country, where tribal elites among "white Moors" (Bidh'an,Hassaniya-speaking Arabs and Arabized Berbers) hold sway.[125] Slavery practices exist also within the Sub-Saharan African ethnic groups of the south.
In 2012, a government minister stated that slavery "no longer exists" in Mauritania.[126] However, according to theWalk Free Foundation's Global Slavery Index, there were an estimated 90,000 enslaved people in Mauritania in 2018, or around 2% of the population.[127]
Obstacles to ending slavery in Mauritania include:
The difficulty of enforcing any laws in the country's vast desert.[119]
Poverty that limits opportunities for slaves to support themselves if freed.[119]
Belief that slavery is part of the natural order of this society.[119]
Tuareg and Mauritanian silversmiths have developed traditions oftraditional Berber jewellery and metalwork that have been worn by Mauritanian women and men. According to studies of Tuareg and Mauritanian jewellery, the latter are usually more embellished and may carry typicalpyramidal elements.[128]
The TV showAtlas of Cursed Places (2020) that aired on theDiscovery Channel andNational Geographic Channel had an episode that mentions Mauritania as a possible location for the lost city ofAtlantis. The location they consider is a geological formation consisting of a series of rings known as theRichat Structure, which is located inWestern Sahara.
Mauritania has been the recipient of international support for sports infrastructure.Morocco has committed to building a sports complex in the country.[136]
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^Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 549.ISBN978-0-19-533770-9., Quote: "Haratine. Social caste in several northwestern African countries consisting of blacks, many of whom are former slaves (...)"
^Gast, M. (2000). "Harṭâni". Encyclopédie berbère – Hadrumetum – Hidjaba (in French). 22.
^A. Lamport, Mark (2021).Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 497.ISBN9781442271579.Influences—Christian influences in Mauritanian society are limited to the approximately 10,000 foreign nationals living in the country
^"Mauritanian minister responds to accusations that slavery is rampant". CNN. 17 March 2012. Archived fromthe original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved19 March 2012.I must tell you that in Mauritania, freedom is total: freedom of thought, equality – of all men and women of Mauritania... in all cases, especially with this government, this is in the past. There are probably former relationships – slavery relationships and familial relationships from old days and of the older generations, maybe, or descendants who wish to continue to be in relationships with descendants of their old masters, for familial reasons, or out of affinity, and maybe also for economic interests. But (slavery) is something that is totally finished. All people are free in Mauritania and this phenomenon no longer exists. And I believe that I can tell you that no one profits from this commerce.
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