 | You can helpexpand this article with text translated fromthe corresponding article in Chinese. (August 2025)Click [show] for important translation instructions.
|
The concept ofmartyrdom in China during the premodern period largely concerned loyalty to political principles and was developed in modern times by revolutionaries, such as theTongmenghui and theKuomintang parties during theXinhai Revolution,Northern Expedition, andSecond Sino-Japanese War.
In pre-imperial China, the honest officialQu Yuan remonstrated with his king but was driven out of the court by vicious rivals. Rather than rebel, he drowned himself in the river, leaving behind his poem,Li Sao (Encountering Sorrow). His failed attempt in 228 BCE to assassinate theKing of Qin, who would become the First Emperor of China, madeJing Ke a martyr. The state can prosecute those who slander officially designated martyrs under theLaw on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs.[1]
Martyr is an honorary title for those who officially sacrificed their lives for a just cause or sacrificed their lives for justice. In theMing dynasty, theGreat Ming Code stipulated that actors were not allowed to play loyal martyrs, and those who violated the law would be punished.[2] In the People's Republic of China, martyrs were formerly called "revolutionary martyrs", referring to Chinese citizens (including members of the People's Liberation Army)[3] who "died heroically in the revolutionary struggle, defending the motherland and socialist modernization construction". In addition, according to the "Several Explanations on Revolutionary Martyrs" issued by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Central People's Government in 1950, those who died in battle, were executed by the authorities of, or died in prison for opposing theQing dynasty, theBeiyang government, theNationalist government, andthe Japanese invaders before thefounding of the People's Republic of China were also regarded as "revolutionary martyrs."[4][5] In 2011, the "Regulations on Commendation of Martyrs" was promulgated and implemented, and "revolutionary martyrs" were renamed "martyrs".[6]
Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians were mostly accepted along with other religious persuasions but sometimes accused of disloyalty. Government officialsexecuted Christians in the 18th and 19th centuries for their refusal to renounce their faith, which the officials regarded as subversive. The largest number of martyrs were those killed by local groups in theBoxer Uprising, when some 30,000 Chinese citizens and foreign missionaries were killed because their faith was considered foreign.
Revolutionaries of theTongmenghui who died in attempts to overthrow theQing dynasty were recognized as martyrs by theRepublic of China after theXinhai Revolution.
During theXinhai Revolution itself, many Chinese revolutionaries became martyrs in battle. "Dare to Die" student corps were founded, for student revolutionaries wanting to fight against Qing dynasty rule. Dr.Sun Yatsen andHuang Xing promoted the Dare to Die corps. Huang said, "We must die, so let us die bravely".[7] During the revolution, suicide squads were formed by Chinese students going into battle, knowing that they would be killed fighting against overwhelming odds.[8] The72 Martyrs of Huanghuagang died in the uprising that began theWuchang Uprising, and were recognized as heroes and martyrs by theKuomintang party and theRepublic of China.[9] Dare to Die student corps led by men likeChiang Kai-shek andHuang Shaoxiong withBai Chongxi played a role in the attack against Qing forces in the Xinhai Revolution.[10][11] The martyrs in the Dare to Die Corps who died in battle wrote letters to family members before heading off to certain death. The Huanghuakang was built as a monument to the 72 martyrs.[12] The martyrdom of the revolutionaries helped the establishment of theRepublic of China, overthrowing theQing dynasty imperial system.[13]
"Dare to Die" corps continued to be used in the Chinese military. The Kuomintang used one to put down an insurrection in Canton.[14] Many women joined them in addition to men to achieve martyrdom against China's opponents.[15][16]
The Kuomintang continued to promote the concept of martyrdom, the souls of Party martyrs who died fighting for the Kuomintang and the revolution and the party founder Dr. Sun Yatsen were sent to heaven according to the Kuomintang party. Chiang Kai-shek believed that these martyrs witnessed events on earth from heaven and he called on them for help.[17][18][19][20]
Coolies against the Communist takeover formed "Dare to Die Corps" to fight for their organizations, with their lives.[21] During the1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, protesting students also formed "Dare to Die Corps", to risk their lives defending the protest leaders.[22]
Two of the earliest revolutionary martyrs in Chinese culture wereLiu Hulan, a 14-year-old school girl, andJiang Zhuyun. Both were immortalized in operas -Liu Hulan andSister Jiang respectively.
Islam has its own concept of martyrdom, which theKuomintang promoted amongChinese Muslims through theChinese Muslim Association. The Muslim GeneralMa Fuxiang stated on how Chinese Muslims were willing to die to accomplish tasks assigned to them.[23]Imams sponsored by the Kuomintang called for Muslims to go onJihad to becomeshaheed (Muslim term for martyr) in battle, where Muslims believe they will go automatically to heaven. Becoming a shaheed in the Jihad for the country was encouraged by the Kuomintang, which was called "glorious death for the state" and ahadith promoting nationalism was spread.[24] A song written by Xue Wenbo at the Muslim Chengda school, which was controlled by the Kuomintang, called for martyrdom in battle for China against Japan.[25] The Muslim GeneralBai Chongxi himself was a member of a Dare to Die corps in the Xinhai revolution.[11]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)party martyrs heaven.
dare to die china.