Marsilius of Padua | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Born | c. 1270 |
| Died | c. 1342 Munich, Duchy ofUpper Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire |
| Education | |
| Education | University of Paris |
| Philosophical work | |
| Era | 14th-century philosophy Medieval philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| Main interests | |
| Notable works | Defensor pacis |
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Marsilius of Padua (Italian:Marsilio da Padova; bornMarsilio Mainardi,Marsilio de i Mainardini orMarsilio Mainardini;c. 1270 –c. 1342) was an Italian scholar, trained in medicine, who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th-century political figure. His political treatiseDefensor pacis (The Defender of Peace), an attempt to refute papal claims to a "plenitude of power" in affairs of both church and state, is seen by some scholars as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the laterMiddle Ages.[1] It is one of the first examples of a trenchant critique ofultramontanism in Western Europe.[2] Marsilius is sometimes seen as aforerunner of the Protestant reformation, because many of his beliefs were later adopted by Calvin and Luther.[3]
Marsilius was born inPadua, an important city near Venice, circa the 1270s. He probably studied medicine at theUniversity of Padua[4] and later went to theUniversity of Paris, where he became a devoted admirer of Aristotle, whom he called 'the divine philosopher".[5] He served asrector of the University of Paris approximately 1312–1313.[6] It is probable that he taught at the University of Paris before and after his tenure as rector.[6]
Marsilius wroteDefensor pacis in 1324.[7] This treatise was written in the context of a power struggle betweenPope John XXII andLouis of Bavaria (or Ludwig of Bavaria), the elected candidate forHoly Roman Emperor. Louis' policies in the Italian peninsula, where the Empire had important territories, threatened papal territorial sovereignty. In 1323 Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the powerfulKingdom of Naples. Naples, along withFrance, was a strong ally of John XXII. Johnexcommunicated Louis and demanded that he relinquish his claim to the imperial crown. Louis responded to John XXII with fresh provocations.
InDefensor pacis, Marsilius sought to demonstrate, by arguments fromreason (inDictio I of the text) and by argument fromauthority (inDictio II) the independence of theHoly Roman Empire from thePapacy and the emptiness of the prerogatives alleged to have been usurped by the Roman pontiffs. A number of Marsilius's views were declared to be heretical by Pope John XXII in 1327.[7][8]
Most ofDefensor pacis is devoted to theology. Relying heavily on Scripture, Marsilius seeks to show that Jesus did not claim to possess any temporal power and that he did not intend his church to exercise any.[9] On the contrary, Scripture teaches that the church should be thoroughly subordinate to the state in both secular and spiritual matters. All authority in the church lies with the whole body of the faithful, the secular ruler who acts as the people's representative, and general councils called by the secular ruler.[10] Some of Marsilius's arguments on these themes had a marked influence during the Reformation.[11]
Today, Marsilius'sDefensor pacis is best remembered not for its theology but for its political philosophy and legal theory. Marsilius agrees with Aristotle that the purpose of government is the rational fulfillment of humans' natural desire for a "sufficient life".[12] However, he goes beyond Aristotle in embracing a form of republicanism that views the people as the only legitimate source of political authority.Sovereignty lies with the people, and the people should elect, correct, and, if necessary, depose its political leaders.[11] Democracy, Marsilius argues, is the best form of government because it tends to produce the wisest laws, protects the common benefit, promotes "sufficiency of life", and produces laws that are most likely to be obeyed.[13]
Marsilius andJohn of Jandun, who has sometimes been credited as a co-author ofDefensor pacis, left France for Louis'court inBavaria. Louis admitted Marsilius and John to his circle. Others were also under his protection, includingMichael of Cesena and the philosopherWilliam of Ockham, an advocate of an early form of church and state separation. In 1326, Marsilius accompanied Louis to Italy, where he preached or circulated written attacks against the pope. The Lord of MilanGaleazzo I Visconti, suspected of conspiring with John XXII, was deposed and Louis was crowned King of Italy inMilan in 1327.
In January 1328 Louis enteredRome and had himself crowned emperor by the aged senatorSciarra Colonna, calledcaptain of the Roman people. Three months later, Louis published a decree declaring "Jacque de Cahors"—Pope John XXII—deposed on grounds ofheresy. He then installed theFranciscanPietro Rainalducci asNicholas V. Nicholas was deposed upon Louis's departure from Rome in 1329.
In Bavaria, as imperial vicar, Marsilius persecuted the clergy who had remained faithful to John XXII. In recompense for his services, he was appointedarchbishop of Milan,[14] and John of Jandun obtained from Louis IV thebishopric of Ferrara.
Marsilius also composed a treatiseDe translatione [Romani] imperii, which some authorities consider is a rearrangement of a similar work byLandolfo Colonna [Wikidata] calledDe jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali. This work, and Marsilius's variation, sought to justify the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs: Louis of Bavaria had recently annulled the marriage of the son of the King of Bohemia.
Marsilius died inMunich around 1342, still unreconciled to the Church.
Some authorities considerDefensor pacis one of the most important political and religious works of fourteenth-centuryEurope. In theDefensor minor, Marsilius completed and elaborated on different points in the doctrine laid down in theDefensor pacis. He dealt here with problems concerning ecclesiastical jurisdiction,penance,indulgences,crusades andpilgrimages, vows,excommunication, the general church council, marriage and divorce, and unity with theGreek Orthodox Church. In this work he even more clearly articulates imperial supremacy over the Church.[15]
Marsilius saw the scriptures as being above the church and believed the papacy to be created by human arrangement rather than being divinely ordained.[16]
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Marsilius of Padua".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 775–776.
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