Tito was born to a Croat father and a Slovene mother inKumrovec in what was thenAustria-Hungary. Drafted into military service, he distinguished himself, becoming the youngestsergeant major in theAustro-Hungarian Army of that time. After being seriously wounded and captured by the Russians duringWorld War I, he was sent to a work camp in theUral Mountains. Tito participated in some events of theRussian Revolution in 1917 and the subsequentRussian Civil War. Upon his return to theBalkans in 1920, he entered the newly establishedKingdom of Yugoslavia, where he joined theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia. Having assumed de facto control over the party by 1937, Tito was formally elected its general secretary in 1939 and later its president, the title he held until his death. DuringWorld War II, after theNazi invasion of the area, he led the Yugoslav guerrilla movement, thePartisans (1941–1945).[5] By the end of the war, the Partisans, withthe Allies' backing since mid-1943, took power in Yugoslavia.
After the war, Tito served as theprime minister (1945–1963),president (1953–1980; from 1974president for life), andmarshal of Yugoslavia, the highest rank of theYugoslav People's Army (JNA). In 1945, under his leadership, Yugoslavia became acommunist state, which was eventually renamed theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Despite being one of the founders of theCominform, he became the first Cominform member and the only leader inJoseph Stalin's lifetime to defySoviet hegemony in theEastern Bloc, leading to Yugoslavia's expulsion from the organisation in 1948 in what was known as theTito–Stalin split. In the following years, alongside other political leaders and Marxist theorists such asEdvard Kardelj andMilovan Đilas, he initiated the idiosyncratic model ofsocialist self-management in which firms were managed byworkers' councils and all workers were entitled toworkplace democracy and equalshare of profits. Tito wavered between supporting a centralised or more decentralised federation and ended up favouring the latter to keepethnic tensions under control; thus, the constitution was gradually developed to delegate as much power as possible to each republic in keeping with the Marxist theory ofwithering away of the state. He envisaged the SFR of Yugoslavia as a "federal republic of equal nations and nationalities, freely united on the principle ofbrotherhood and unity in achieving specific and common interest." A very powerfulcult of personality arose around him, which the League of Communists of Yugoslavia maintained even after his death. After Tito's death, Yugoslavia's leadership was transformed into an annually rotating presidency to give representation to all of its nationalities and prevent the emergence of an authoritarian leader. Twelve years later, ascommunism collapsed in Eastern Europe and ethnic tensions escalated, Yugoslaviadissolved and descended intoa series of interethnic wars.
Tito's birthplace in the village ofKumrovec, Croatia
Josip Broz was born on 7 May 1892[a] inKumrovec, a village in the northern Croatian region ofZagorje. At the time it was part of theKingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within theAustro-Hungarian Empire.[b] He was the seventh or eighth child of Franjo Broz (1860–1936) and Marija née Javeršek (1864–1918). His parents had already had a number of children die in early infancy.[18][19] Broz was christened and raised as aRoman Catholic.[20] His father, Franjo, was aCroat whose family had lived in the village for three centuries, while his mother, Marija, was aSlovene from the village ofPodsreda. The villages were 16 kilometres (10 mi) apart, and his parents had married on 21 January 1881. Franjo Broz had inherited a 4.0-hectare (10-acre) estate and a good house, but he was unable to make a success of farming. Josip spent a significant proportion of his pre-school years living with his maternal grandparents at Podsreda, where he became a favourite of his grandfather Martin Javeršek. By the time he returned to Kumrovec to begin school, he spokeSlovene better thanCroatian,[21][22] and had learned to play the piano.[23] Despite his mixed parentage, Broz identified as a Croat like his father and neighbours.[24][25][26]
In July 1900,[23] at age eight, Broz entered primary school at Kumrovec. He completed four years of school,[22] failing 2nd grade and graduating in 1905.[21] As a result of his limited schooling, throughout his life, Tito was poor at spelling. After leaving school, he initially worked for a maternal uncle and then on his parents' family farm.[22] In 1907, his father wanted him to emigrate to theUnited States but could not raise the money for the voyage.[27]
Instead, aged 15 years, Broz left Kumrovec and travelled about 97 kilometres (60 mi) south toSisak, where his cousin Jurica Broz was doing army service. Jurica helped him get a job in a restaurant, but Broz soon got tired of that work. He approached aCzechlocksmith, Nikola Karas, for a three-year apprenticeship, which included training, food, androom and board. As his father could not afford to pay for his work clothing, Broz paid for it himself. Soon after, his younger brother Stjepan also became apprenticed to Karas.[21][28]
He returned home in December 1910.[31] In early 1911, he began a series of moves in search of work, first inLjubljana, thenTrieste, Kumrovec and Zagreb, where he worked repairing bicycles. He joined his first strike action on May Day 1911.[29] After a brief period of work in Ljubljana,[31] between May 1911 and May 1912, he worked in a factory inKamnik in theKamnik–Savinja Alps. After it closed, he was offered redeployment toČenkov inBohemia. On arriving at his new workplace, he discovered that the employer was trying to bring in cheaper labour to replace the local Czech workers, and he and others joined successful strike action to force the employer to back down.[c]
Driven by curiosity, Broz moved toPlzeň, where he was briefly employed at theŠkoda Works. He next travelled toMunich inBavaria. He also worked at theBenz car factory inMannheim and visited theRuhr industrial region. By October 1912, he had reachedVienna. He stayed with his older brother Martin and his family and worked at the Griedl Works before getting a job atWiener Neustadt. There he worked forAustro-Daimler and was often asked to drive and test the cars.[33] During this time, he spent considerable timefencing and dancing,[34][35] and during his training and early work life, he also learned German and passableCzech.[36][d]
In May 1913,[36] Broz wasconscripted into theAustro-Hungarian Army[38][e] for his compulsory two years of service. He successfully requested to serve with the25th Croatian Home Guard Regiment garrisoned in Zagreb. After learning to ski during the winter of 1913 and 1914, Broz was sent to a school fornon-commissioned officers (NCO) inBudapest,[40] after which he was promoted tosergeant major. At age 22, he was the youngest of that rank in his regiment.[36][40][f] At least one source states that he was the youngest sergeant major in the Austro-Hungarian Army.[42] After winning the regimental fencing competition,[40] Broz came in second in the army fencing championships in Budapest in May 1914.[42]
Soon after the outbreak ofWorld War I in 1914, the 25th Croatian Home Guard Regiment marched toward theSerbian border. Broz was arrested forsedition and imprisoned in thePetrovaradin fortress in present-dayNovi Sad.[43] He later gave conflicting accounts of this arrest, telling one biographer that he had threatened to desert to the Russian side but also claiming that the whole matter arose from a clerical error.[40] A third version was that he had been overheard saying that he hoped the Austro-Hungarian Empire would be defeated.[44] After his acquittal and release,[45] his regiment served briefly on theSerbian Front before being deployed to theEastern Front inGalicia in early 1915 to fight againstRussia.[40] In his account of his military service, Broz did not mention that he participated in the failed Austrian invasion of Serbia, instead giving the misleading impression that he fought only in Galicia, as it would have offended Serbian opinion to know that he fought in 1914 for the Habsburgs against them.[44] On one occasion, thescoutplatoon he commanded went behind the enemy lines and captured 80 Russian soldiers, bringing them back to their own lines alive. In 1980 it was discovered that Broz had been recommended for an award for gallantry and initiative in reconnaissance and capturing prisoners.[46] Tito's biographer Richard West wrote that Tito actually downplayed his military record as the Austrian Army records showed that he was a brave soldier, which contradicted his later claim to have opposed the Habsburg monarchy and his self-portrait of himself as an unwilling conscript fighting in a war he opposed.[47] Broz's fellow soldiers regarded him askaisertreu ("true to the Emperor").[48]
On 25 March 1915,[g] Broz was wounded in the back by aCircassian cavalryman's lance[50] and captured during a Russian attack nearBukovina.[51] In his account of his capture, Broz wrote: "suddenly the right flank yielded and through the gap poured cavalry of the Circassians, from Asiatic Russia. Before we knew it they were thundering through our positions, leaping from their horses and throwing themselves into our trenches with lances lowered. One of them rammed his two-yard, iron-tipped, double-pronged lance into my back just below the left arm. I fainted. Then, as I learned, the Circassians began to butcher the wounded, even slashing them with their knives. Fortunately, Russian infantry reached the positions and put an end to the orgy".[49] Now aprisoner of war (POW), Broz was transported east to a hospital established in an old monastery in the town ofSviyazhsk on theVolga river nearKazan.[40] During his 13 months in hospital, he had bouts of pneumonia and typhus, and learned Russian with the help of two schoolgirls who brought him Russian classics by such authors asTolstoy andTurgenev.[40][49][52]
The Uspensko-Bogorodichny monastery, where Tito recuperated from his wounds
After recuperating, in mid-1916, Broz was transferred to the Ardatov POW camp in theSamara Governorate, where he used his skills to maintain the nearby village grain mill. At the end of the year, he was transferred to theKungur POW camp nearPerm where the POWs were used as labour to maintain the newly completedTrans-Siberian Railway.[40] Broz was appointed to be in charge of all the POWs in the camp.[53] During this time, he became aware that camp staff were stealing theRed Cross parcels sent to the POWs. When he complained, he was beaten and imprisoned.[40] During theFebruary Revolution, a crowd broke into the prison and returned Broz to the POW camp. ABolshevik he had met while working on the railway told Broz that his son was working in engineering works inPetrograd, so, in June 1917, Broz walked out of the unguarded POW camp and hid aboard a goods train bound for that city, where he stayed with his friend's son.[54][55] The journalistRichard West has suggested that because Broz chose to remain in an unguarded POW camp rather than volunteer to serve with the Yugoslav legions of theSerbian Army, he was still loyal to theAustro-Hungarian Empire, undermining his later claim that he and other Croat POWs were excited by the prospect of revolution and looked forward to the overthrow of the empire that ruled them.[48]
Less than a month after Broz arrived in Petrograd, theJuly Days demonstrations broke out, and Broz joined in, coming under fire from government troops.[56][57] In the aftermath, he tried to flee toFinland in order to make his way to the United States but was stopped at the border.[58] He was arrested along with other suspected Bolsheviks during the subsequent crackdown by theRussian Provisional Government led byAlexander Kerensky. He was imprisoned in thePeter and Paul Fortress for three weeks, during which he claimed to be an innocent citizen of Perm. When he finally admitted to being an escaped POW, he was to be returned by train to Kungur, but escaped atYekaterinburg, then caught another train that reachedOmsk inSiberia on 8 November after a 3,200-kilometre (2,000 mi) journey.[56][59] At one point, police searched the train looking for an escaped POW, but were deceived by Broz's fluent Russian.[57]
In Omsk, local Bolsheviks stopped the train and told Broz thatVladimir Lenin had seized control of Petrograd. They recruited him into anInternational Red Guard that guarded the Trans-Siberian Railway during the winter of 1917 and 1918. In May 1918, the anti-BolshevikCzechoslovak Legion wrested control of parts of Siberia from Bolshevik forces, theProvisional Siberian Government established itself in Omsk, and Broz and his comrades went into hiding. At this time, Broz met a 14-year-old local girl,Pelagija "Polka" Belousova [sh], who hid him and then helped him escape to aKazakh village 64 kilometres (40 mi) from Omsk.[56][60] Broz again worked maintaining the local mill until November 1919, when theRed Army recaptured Omsk fromWhite forces loyal to theProvisional All-Russian Government ofAlexander Kolchak. He moved back to Omsk and married Belousova in January 1920.[h] At the time of their marriage, Broz was 27 years old and Pelagia Belousova was 14. They divorced in the 1930s in Moscow.[62][63] Broz later wrote that during his time in Russia, he heard much talk of Lenin, a little of Trotsky, and "as for Stalin, during the time I stayed in Russia, I never once heard his name".[61] Tito joined the Communist Party in 1920 in Omsk.[63] In the autumn of 1920, he and his pregnant wife returned to his homeland, by train toNarva, by ship toStettin, then by train to Vienna, where they arrived on 20 September. In early October, Broz returned to Kumrovec in what was then theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to find that his mother had died and his father had moved toJastrebarsko, near Zagreb.[56] Sources differ over whether Broz joined theCommunist Party of the Soviet Union while in Russia, but he said that the first time he joined theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) was in Zagreb after he returned to his homeland.[64]
Upon his return home, Broz was unable to gain employment as a metalworker in Kumrovec, so he and his wife moved briefly to Zagreb, where he worked as a waiter and took part in a waiter's strike. He also joined the CPY.[65] The CPY's influence on the political life of Yugoslavia was growing rapidly. In the 1920 elections, it won 59 seats and became the third-strongest party.[66] In light of difficult economic and social circumstances, the regime viewed the CPY as the main threat to the system of government.[67] On 30 December, the government issued a Proclamation (Obznana) outlawing communist activities, which included bans on propaganda, assembly halls, stripping of civil service for servants and scholarships for students found to be communist.[68] Its author,Milorad Drašković, the Yugoslav Minister of the Interior, was assassinated by a young communist,Alija Alijagić, on 2 August 1921. The CPY was then declared illegal under the Yugoslav State Security Act of 1921,[69] and the regime proceeded to prosecute party members and sympathisers aspolitical prisoners.[68]
Due to his overt communist links, Broz was fired from his employment.[70] He and his wife then moved to the village ofVeliko Trojstvo where he worked as a mill mechanic.[71][72] After the arrest of the CPY leadership in January 1922, Stevo Sabić took over control of its operations. Sabić contacted Broz, who agreed to work illegally for the party, distributing leaflets and agitating among factory workers. In the contest of ideas between those that wanted to pursue moderate policies and those that advocated violent revolution, Broz sided with the latter. In 1924, Broz was elected to the CPY district committee, but after he gave a speech at a comrade'sCatholic funeral, he was arrested when the priest complained. Paraded through the streets in chains, he was held for eight days and was eventually charged with creating a public disturbance. With the help of aSerbian Orthodox prosecutor who hated Catholics, Broz and his co-accused were acquitted.[73] His brush with the law had marked him as a communist agitator, and his home was searched on an almost weekly basis. Since their arrival in Yugoslavia, Pelagija had lost three babies soon after their births and one daughter, Zlatica, at the age of two. Broz felt the loss of Zlatica deeply. In 1924, Pelagija gave birth to a boy, Žarko, who survived. In mid-1925, Broz's employer died, and the new mill owner gave him an ultimatum: give up his communist activities or lose his job. So, at age 33, Broz became a professional revolutionary.[74][75]
The CPY concentrated its revolutionary efforts on factory workers in the more industrialised areas of Croatia and Slovenia, encouraging strikes and similar action.[76] In 1925, the now unemployed Broz moved toKraljevica on theAdriatic coast, where he started working at a shipyard to further the aims of the CPY.[77] During his time in Kraljevica, he acquired a love of the warm, sunny Adriatic coastline that lasted for the rest of his life, and throughout his later time as leader, he spent as much time as possible living onhis yacht while cruising the Adriatic.[78]
While atKraljevica, he worked on Yugoslavtorpedo boats and a pleasure yacht for thePeople's Radical Party politician,Milan Stojadinović. Broz built up the trade union organisation in the shipyards and was elected as aunion representative. A year later, he led a shipyard strike and soon after was fired. In October 1926, he obtained work in a railway works inSmederevska Palanka nearBelgrade. In March 1927, he wrote an article complaining about theexploitation of workers in the factory, and after speaking up for a worker, he was promptly sacked. Identified by the CPY as worthy of promotion, he was appointed secretary of the Zagreb branch of the Metal Workers' Union and, soon thereafter, the union's whole Croatian branch. In July 1927, Broz was arrested along with six other workers, and imprisoned at nearbyOgulin.[79][80] After being held without trial for some time, he went on a hunger strike until a date was set. The trial was held in secret, and he was found guilty of being a member of the CPY. Sentenced to four months' imprisonment, he was released from prison pending an appeal. On the CPY's orders, Broz did not report to court for the hearing of the appeal, instead going into hiding in Zagreb. Wearing dark spectacles and carrying forged papers, Broz posed as a middle-class technician in the engineering industry, working undercover to contact other CPY members and coordinate their infiltration of trade unions.[81]
Tito'smug shot after arrest for communist activities in 1928
In February 1928, Broz was one of 32 delegates to the conference of the Croatian branch of the CPY. During the conference, he condemned factions within the party, including those that advocated aGreater Serbia agenda within Yugoslavia, like the long-term CPY leaderSima Marković. Broz proposed that the executive committee of theCommunist International purge the branch of factionalism and was supported by a delegate sent from Moscow. After it was proposed that the Croatian branch's entire central committee be dismissed, a new central committee was elected, with Broz as its secretary.[82] Marković was subsequently expelled from the CPY at the Fourth Congress of theComintern, and the CPY adopted a policy of working for the breakup of Yugoslavia.[83] Broz arranged to disrupt a meeting of theSocial-Democratic Party on May Day that year; in a melee outside the venue, police arrested him. They failed to identify him, charging him under his false name for a breach of the peace. He was imprisoned for 14 days and then released, returning to his previous activities.[84] The police eventually tracked him down with the help of a police informer. He was ill-treated and held for three months before being tried in court in November 1928 for his illegal communist activities,[85] which included allegations that police had planted the bombs found at his address.[86] He was convicted and sentenced to five years' imprisonment.[87]
Tito (left) and his ideological mentorMoša Pijade while they were imprisoned in the Lepoglava jail
After Broz's sentencing, his wife and son returned to Kumrovec, where sympathetic locals looked after them, but then one day, they suddenly left without explanation and returned to the Soviet Union.[88] She fell in love with another man, and Žarko grew up in institutions.[89] After arriving atLepoglava prison, Broz was employed in maintaining the electrical system and chose as his assistant a middle-class Belgrade Jew,Moša Pijade, who had been given a 20-year sentence for his communist activities. Their work allowed Broz and Pijade to move around the prison, contacting and organising other communist prisoners.[90] During their time together in Lepoglava, Pijade became Broz's ideological mentor.[91] After two and a half years at Lepoglava, Broz was accused of attempting to escape and was transferred toMaribor prison, where he was held in solitary confinement for several months.[92] After completing the full term of his sentence, he was released, only to be arrested outside the prison gates and taken to Ogulin to serve the four-month sentence he had avoided in 1927. He was finally released from prison on 16 March 1934, but even then, he was subject to orders that required him to live in Kumrovec and report to the police daily.[93] During his imprisonment, the political situation in Europe had changed significantly, with the rise ofAdolf Hitler in Germany and the emergence of right-wing parties in France and neighbouring Austria. He returned to a warm welcome in Kumrovec but did not stay long. In early May, he received word from the CPY to return to his revolutionary activities and left his hometown for Zagreb, where he rejoined the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Croatia.[94]
The Croatian branch of the CPY was in disarray, a situation exacerbated by the escape of the executive committee of the CPY to Vienna in Austria, from which they were directing activities. Over the next six months, Broz travelled several times between Zagreb, Ljubljana and Vienna, using false passports. In July 1934, he was blackmailed by a smuggler but pressed on across the border and was detained by the localHeimwehr, a paramilitary Home Guard. He used the Austrian accent he had developed during his war service to convince them that he was a wayward Austrian mountaineer, and they allowed him to proceed to Vienna.[95][96] Once there, he contacted the General Secretary of the CPY,Milan Gorkić, who sent him to Ljubljana to arrange a secret conference of the CPY in Slovenia. The conference was held at the summer palace of theRoman Catholic bishop of Ljubljana, whose brother was a communist sympathiser. It was at this conference that Broz first metEdvard Kardelj, a young Slovene communist who had recently been released from prison. Broz and Kardelj subsequently became good friends, with Tito later regarding him as his most reliable deputy. As he was wanted by the police for failing to report to them in Kumrovec, Broz adopted various pseudonyms, including "Rudi" and "Tito". He used the latter as a pen name when he wrote articles for party journals in 1934, and it stuck. He gave no reason for choosing the name "Tito" except that it was a common nickname for men from the district where he grew up. Within the Comintern network, his nickname was "Walter".[97][98][99]
Edvard Kardelj met Tito in 1934 and they became close friends
During this time, Tito wrote articles on the duties of imprisoned communists and on trade unions. He was in Ljubljana whenVlado Chernozemski, an assassin for theInternal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) and instructor for the Croatian ultranationalist organisationUstaše, assassinatedKing Alexander in Marseilles on 9 October 1934. In the crackdown on dissidents that followed his death, it was decided that Tito should leave Yugoslavia. He travelled to Vienna on a forged Czechoslovak passport, where he joined Gorkić and the rest of thePolitburo of the CPY. It was decided that the Austrian government was too hostile to communism, so the Politburo travelled toBrno inCzechoslovakia, and Tito accompanied them.[100] On Christmas Day 1934, a secret meeting of the Central Committee of the CPY was held in Ljubljana, and Tito was elected as a member of the Politburo for the first time. The Politburo decided to send him to Moscow to report on the situation in Yugoslavia, and in early February 1935, he arrived there as a full-time official of the Comintern.[101] He lodged at the main Comintern residence, theHotel Lux onTverskaya Street and was quickly in contact withVladimir Ćopić, one of the leading Yugoslavs with the Comintern. He was soon introduced to the main personalities in the organisation. Tito was appointed to the secretariat of the Balkan section, responsible for Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania and Greece.[102] Kardelj was also in Moscow, as was the Bulgarian communist leaderGeorgi Dimitrov.[98] Tito lectured on trade unions to foreign communists and attended a course on military tactics run by the Red Army, and occasionally attended theBolshoi Theatre. He attended as one of 510 delegates to theSeventh World Congress of the Comintern in July and August 1935, where he briefly sawJoseph Stalin for the first time. After the congress, he toured theSoviet Union and then returned toMoscow to continue his work. He contacted Polka and Žarko, but soon fell in love with an Austrian woman who worked at the Hotel Lux, Johanna Koenig, known within communist ranks as Lucia Bauer. When she became aware of this liaison, Polka divorced Tito in April 1936. Tito married Bauer on 13 October of that year.[103]
After the World Congress, Tito worked to promote the new Comintern line on Yugoslavia, which was that it would no longer work to break up the country and would instead defend the integrity of Yugoslavia against Nazism and Fascism. From a distance, Tito also worked to organise strikes at the shipyards at Kraljevica and the coal mines atTrbovlje near Ljubljana. He tried to convince the Comintern that it would be better if the party leadership were located inside Yugoslavia. A compromise was arrived at, where Tito and others would work inside the country, and Gorkić and the Politburo would continue to work from abroad. Gorkić and the Politburo relocated to Paris, while Tito began to travel between Moscow, Paris and Zagreb in 1936 and 1937, using false passports.[104] In 1936, his father died.[21]
Tito returned to Moscow in August 1936, soon after the outbreak of theSpanish Civil War.[105] At the time, theGreat Purge was underway, and foreign communists like Tito and his Yugoslav compatriots were particularly vulnerable. Despite a laudatory report written by Tito about the veteran Yugoslav communistFilip Filipović, Filipović was arrested and shot by the Soviet secret police, theNKVD.[106] However, before the Purge really began to erode the ranks of the Yugoslav communists in Moscow, Tito was sent back to Yugoslavia with a new mission, to recruitvolunteers for theInternational Brigades being raised to fight on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War. Travelling via Vienna, he reached the coastal port city ofSplit in December 1936.[107] According to the Croatian historianIvo Banac, the reason the Comintern sent Tito back to Yugoslavia was to purge the CPY.[108] An initial attempt to send 500 volunteers to Spain by ship failed, with nearly all the volunteers arrested and imprisoned.[107] Tito then travelled to Paris, where he arranged the volunteers' travel to France under the cover of attending theParis Exhibition. Once in France, the volunteers crossed thePyrenees to Spain. In all, he sent 1,192 men to fight in the war, but only 330 came from Yugoslavia; the rest were expatriates in France, Belgium, the U.S. and Canada. Fewer than half were communists, and the rest were social-democrats and anti-fascists of various hues. Of the total, 671 were killed in the fighting, and 300 were wounded. Tito himself never went to Spain, despite speculation that he had.[109] Between May and August 1937, he travelled several times between Paris and Zagreb, organising the movement of volunteers and creating a separateCommunist Party of Croatia. The new party was inaugurated at a conference atSamobor on the outskirts of Zagreb on 1–2 August 1937.[110] Tito played a crucial role in organizing the return of the Yugoslav volunteers from German concentration camps to Yugoslavia when the decision was made to mount an armed resistance in Yugoslavia, the 1941Uprising in Serbia.[111]
In June 1937, Gorkić was summoned to Moscow, where he was arrested, and after months of NKVD interrogation, he was shot.[112] According to Banac, Gorkić was killed on Stalin's orders.[108] West concludes that despite being in competition with men like Gorkić for the leadership of the CPY, it was not in Tito's character to have innocent people sent to their deaths.[113] Tito then received a message from the Politburo of the CPY to join them in Paris. In August 1937, he became actingGeneral Secretary of the CPY. He later explained that he survived the Purge by staying out of Spain, where the NKVD was active, and also by avoiding visiting the Soviet Union as much as possible. When first appointed as general secretary, he avoided travelling to Moscow by insisting that he needed to deal with some disciplinary issues in the CPY in Paris. He also promoted the idea that the upper echelons of the CPY should be sharing the dangers of underground resistance within the country.[114] He developed a new, younger leadership team that was loyal to him, including the Slovene Edvard Kardelj, the Serb,Aleksandar Ranković, and the Montenegrin,Milovan Đilas.[115] In December 1937, Tito arranged for a demonstration to greet the French foreign minister when he visited Belgrade, expressing solidarity with the French against Nazi Germany. The protest march numbered 30,000 and turned into a protest against the neutrality policy of the Stojadinović government. It was eventually broken up by the police. In March 1938, Tito returned to Yugoslavia from Paris. Hearing a rumour that his opponents within the CPY had tipped off the police, he travelled to Belgrade rather than Zagreb and used a different passport. While in Belgrade, he stayed with a young intellectual,Vladimir Dedijer, who was a friend of Đilas. Arriving in Yugoslavia a few days ahead of theAnschluss between Nazi Germany and Austria, he made an appeal condemning it, in which the CPY was joined by the Social Democrats and trade unions. In June, Tito wrote to the Comintern, suggesting that he should visit Moscow. He waited in Paris for two months for his Soviet visa before travelling to Moscow via Copenhagen. He arrived in Moscow on 24 August.[116]
Fake Canadian ID, "Spiridon Mekas", used for returning to Yugoslavia fromMoscow, 1939
On his arrival in Moscow, Tito found that all Yugoslav communists were under suspicion. The NKVD arrested and executed nearly all of the CPY's most prominent leaders, including over 20 members of the Central Committee. Both Tito's ex-wife Polka and his wife Koenig/Bauer were arrested as "imperialist spies". Both were eventually released, Polka after 27 months in prison. Tito therefore needed to make arrangements for the care of Žarko, who was 14. He placed him in a boarding school outsideKharkov, then at a school atPenza, but he ran away twice and was eventually taken in by a friend's mother. In 1941, Žarko joined the Red Army to fight the invading Germans.[117] Some of Tito's critics argue that his survival indicates he must have denounced his comrades asTrotskyists. He was asked for information on a number of his fellow Yugoslav communists, but according to his own statements and published documents, he never denounced anyone, usually saying he did not know them. In one case, he was asked about the Croatian communist leader Kamilo Horvatin, but wrote ambiguously, saying that he did not know whether he was a Trotskyist. Nevertheless, Horvatin was not heard of again. While in Moscow, he was given the task of assisting Ćopić to translate theHistory of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks) intoSerbo-Croatian, but they had only got to the second chapter when Ćopić too was arrested and executed. He worked on with a fellow surviving Yugoslav communist, but a Yugoslav communist of German ethnicity reported an inaccurate translation of a passage and claimed it showed Tito was a Trotskyist. Other influential communists vouched for him, and he was exonerated. A second Yugoslav communist denounced him, but the action backfired, and his accuser was arrested. Several factors were at play in his survival: his working-class origins, lack of interest in intellectual arguments about socialism, attractive personality, and capacity to make influential friends.[118]
While Tito was avoiding arrest in Moscow, Germany was placing pressure on Czechoslovakia to cede theSudetenland. In response to this threat, Tito organised a call for Yugoslav volunteers to fight for Czechoslovakia, and thousands of volunteers came to the Czechoslovak embassy in Belgrade to offer their services. Despite the eventualMunich Agreement and Czechoslovak acceptance of the annexation and the fact that the volunteers were turned away, Tito claimed credit for the Yugoslav response, which worked in his favour. By this stage, Tito was well aware of the realities in the Soviet Union, later saying he "witnessed a great many injustices" but was too heavily invested in communism and too loyal to the Soviet Union to step back.[119] After restoring the image of a decisive, coherent and non-fractional CPY to theComintern executives, Tito was by October 1938 reassured that the party would not be disestablished; he was then tasked to compile two resolutions on plans of future CPY activities. Hoping to return to Yugoslavia before the1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election in December, Tito requested permission to do so from Comintern'sGeorgi Dimitrov several times, saying that his stay in Moscow was greatly prolonged, but to no avail.[120] The Comintern formally ratified his resolutions on 5 January 1939, and he was appointed General Secretary of the CPY.[121] After his appointment to the party's highest position of leadership, the newly formedPolitburo of the Central Committee retained the old leadership team of Tito, Kardelj, Đilas, Aleksandar Ranković, andIvo Lola Ribar (the representative ofSKOJ) and expanded it withFranc Leskošek,Miha Marinko andJosip Kraš, and by the end of 1939 and start of 1940,Rade Končar andIvan Milutinović.[122]
On 6 April 1941,Axis forcesinvaded Yugoslavia. On 10 April 1941,Slavko Kvaternik proclaimed theIndependent State of Croatia, and Tito responded by forming a Military Committee within the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY).[123] Attacked from all sides, thearmed forces of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia quickly crumbled. On 17 April 1941, afterKing Peter II and other members of the governmentfled the country, the remaining representatives of the government and military met with German officials inBelgrade. They quickly agreed to end military resistance. Prominent communist leaders, including Tito, held theMay consultations to discuss the course of action to take in the face of the invasion. On 1 May 1941, Tito issued a pamphlet calling on the people to unite in a battle against the occupation.[124] On 27 June 1941, the Central Committee appointed Titocommander-in-chief of all national liberation military forces. On 1 July 1941, the Comintern sent precise instructions calling for immediate action.[125]
Tito stayed in Belgrade until 16 September 1941, when he, together with all members of the CPY, left Belgrade to travel to rebel-controlled territory. To leave Belgrade Tito used documents given to him by Dragoljub Milutinović, who was avoivode with thecollaborationistPećanac Chetniks.[126] Since Pećanac was already fully co-operating with Germans by that time, this fact caused some to speculate[who?] that Tito left Belgrade with the blessing of the Germans because his task was to divide rebel forces, similar to Lenin's arrival in Russia.[127] Tito travelled by train throughStalać andČačak and arrived to the village ofRobaje on 18 September 1941.[126]
Despite conflicts with the rival monarchicChetnik movement, Tito'sPartisans succeeded in liberating territory, notably the "Republic of Užice". During this period, Tito held talks with Chetnik leaderDraža Mihailović on 19 September and 27 October 1941.[128] It is said that Tito ordered his forces to assist escaping Jews, and that more than 2,000 Jews fought directly for Tito.[129]
On 21 December 1941, the Partisans created the First Proletarian Brigade (commanded byKoča Popović) and on 1 March 1942, Tito created the Second Proletarian Brigade.[130] In liberated territories, the Partisans organised People's Committees to act as a civilian government. TheAnti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) convened inBihać on 26–27 November 1942 and inJajce on 29 November 1943.[131] In the two sessions, the resistance representatives established the basis for the post-war organisation of the country, deciding on a federation of the Yugoslav nations. InJajce, a 67-member "presidency" was elected and established a nine-memberNational Committee of Liberation (NKOJ; five communist members) as a de factoprovisional government.[132] Tito was named President of NKOJ.[133]
With the growing possibility of an Allied invasion in theBalkans, theAxis began to divert more resources to the destruction of the Partisans main force and its high command.[134] This meant, among other things, a concerted German effort to capture Josip Broz Tito personally. On 25 May 1944, he managed to evade the Germans after theRaid on Drvar (Operation Rösselsprung), anairborne assault outside hisDrvar headquarters inBosnia.[134]
After the Partisans managed to endure and avoid these intenseAxis attacks between January and June 1943, and the extent ofChetnik collaboration became evident, Allied leaders switched their support fromDraža Mihailović to Tito.King Peter II, American PresidentFranklin Roosevelt and British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill joined Soviet PremierJoseph Stalin in officially recognising Tito and the Partisans at theTehran Conference.[135] This resulted in Allied aid being parachuted behind Axis lines to assist the Partisans. On 17 June 1944 on theDalmatian island ofVis, theTreaty of Vis (Viški sporazum) was signed in an attempt to merge Tito's government (theAVNOJ) with the government in exile of King Peter II.[136] TheBalkan Air Force was formed in June 1944 to control operations that were mainly aimed at aiding his forces.[137]
On 12 August 1944, Winston Churchill met Tito inNaples for a deal.[138] On 12 September 1944,King Peter II called on all Yugoslavs to come together under Tito's leadership and stated that those who did not were "traitors",[139] by which time Tito was recognised by all Allied authorities (including the government-in-exile) as thePrime Minister of Yugoslavia, in addition to the commander-in-chief of the Yugoslav forces. On 28 September 1944, theTelegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) reported that Tito signed an agreement with theSoviet Union allowing "temporary entry" of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory, which allowed theRed Army to assist in operations in the northeastern areas of Yugoslavia.[140] With their strategic right flank secured by the Allied advance, the Partisans prepared and executed a massive general offensive that succeeded in breaking through German lines and forcing a retreat beyond Yugoslav borders. After the Partisan victory and the end of hostilities in Europe, all external forces were ordered off Yugoslav territory.[citation needed]
In the autumn of 1944, the communist leadership adopted a political decision on theexpulsion of ethnic Germans from Yugoslavia. On 21 November, a special decree was issued on the confiscation and nationalisation of ethnic German property. To implement the decision, 70 camps were established in Yugoslav territory.[141] In the final days of World War II in Yugoslavia, units of the Partisans were responsible for atrocities duringBleiburg repatriations, and accusations of culpability were later raised at the Yugoslav leadership under Tito. At the time, according to some scholars, Josip Broz Tito repeatedly issued calls for surrender to the retreating column, offering amnesty and attempting to avoid a disorderly surrender.[142] On 14 May he dispatched a telegram to the supreme headquarters of theSlovene Partisan Army prohibiting the execution of prisoners of war and commanding the transfer of the possible suspects to a military court.[143]
Celebration of liberation inZagreb in 1945 dedicated to Tito, in presence of Orthodox dignitaries, the Catholic cardinalAloysius Stepinac, and the Soviet militaryattaché
On 7 March 1945, theprovisional government of theDemocratic Federal Yugoslavia (DFY) was assembled inBelgrade by Josip Broz Tito, while the provisional name allowed for either a republic or monarchy. This government was headed by Tito as provisional Yugoslav Prime Minister and included representatives from the royalist government-in-exile, among othersIvan Šubašić. In accordance with the agreement between resistance leaders and the government-in-exile, post-war elections were held to determine the form of government. In November 1945, Tito's pro-republicanPeople's Front, led by theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia, won the elections with an overwhelming majority, the vote having been boycotted bymonarchists.[144] During the period, Tito evidently enjoyed massive popular support due to being generally viewed by the populace as the liberator of Yugoslavia.[145] The Yugoslav administration in the immediate post-war period managed to unite a country that had been severely affected by ultra-nationalist upheavals and war devastation, while successfully suppressing the nationalist sentiments of the various nations in favour of tolerance, and the common Yugoslav goal. After the overwhelming electoral victory, Tito was confirmed as the Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the DFY. The country was soon renamed theFederal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) (later finally renamed into Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, SFRY). On 29 November 1945, KingPeter II was formally deposed by the Yugoslav Constituent Assembly. The Assembly drafteda new republican constitution soon afterwards.[citation needed]
Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito met with the president of theBishops' Conference of Yugoslavia,Aloysius Stepinac on 4 June 1945, two days after his release from imprisonment. The two could not reach an agreement on the state of the Catholic Church. Under Stepinac's leadership, the bishops' conference released a letter condemning alleged Partisan war crimes in September 1945. The next year, Stepinac was arrested and put ontrial, which some saw as a show trial.[147] In October 1946, in its first special session for 75 years, the Vaticanexcommunicated Tito and the Yugoslav government for sentencing Stepinac to 16 years in prison on charges of assistingUstaše terror and of supporting forced conversions of Serbs to Catholicism.[148] Stepinac received preferential treatment in recognition of his status[149] and the sentence was soon shortened and reduced to house arrest, with the option of emigration open to the archbishop. At the conclusion of the "Informbiro period", reforms rendered Yugoslavia considerably more religiously liberal than theEastern Bloc states.[citation needed]
In the first post-war years, Tito was widely considered a communist leader very loyal to Moscow; indeed, he was often viewed as second only to Stalin in the Eastern Bloc. In fact, Stalin and Tito had an uneasy alliance from the start, with Stalin considering Tito too independent.[150]
From 1946 to 1948, Tito actively engaged in building an alliance with neighbouring communistAlbania, with the intent of incorporating Albania into Yugoslavia.[151] According toEnver Hoxha, the then communist ruler of Albania, in the summer of 1946 Tito promised Hoxha that the Yugoslav province ofKosovo would be ceded to Albania.[152] Despite the decision of unification being agreed upon by Yugoslav communists during theBujan Conference, the plan never materialised.[153] In the first post-war years in Kosovo, Tito enacted the policy of banning the return ofSerb colonists to Kosovo, in addition to enacting the first large-scale primary education program of theAlbanian language.[154]
During the immediate post-war period, Tito's Yugoslavia had a strong commitment toorthodox Marxist ideas. Harsh repressive measures against dissidents and "enemies of the state" were common from government agents,[155] although not known to be under Tito's orders, including "arrests, show trials, forced collectivisation, suppression of churches and religion".[156] As the leader of Yugoslavia, Tito displayed a fondness for luxury, taking over the royal palaces that had belonged to theHouse of Karađorđević together with the former palaces used by theHouse of Habsburg in Yugoslavia.[157] His tours across Yugoslavia in his luxuryBlue Train closely resembled the royal tours of the Karađorđević kings and Habsburg emperors and in Serbia. He also adopted the traditional royal custom of being a godfather to every 9th son, although he modified it to include daughters as well after criticism was made that the practice was sexist.[158] Just like a Serbian king, Tito would appear wherever a 9th child was born to a family to congratulate the parents and give them cash.[158] Tito always spoke very harshly of the Karađorđević kings in both public and private (through in private, he sometimes had a kind word for the Habsburgs), but in many ways, he appeared to his people as sort of a king.[158]
Unlike other states in east-central Europe liberated by allied forces, Yugoslavia liberated itself from Axis domination with limited direct support from theRed Army. Tito's leading role in liberating Yugoslavia not only greatly strengthened his position in his party and among the Yugoslav people but also caused him to be more insistent that Yugoslavia had more room to follow its own interests than other Bloc leaders who had more reasons to recognise Soviet efforts in helping them liberate their own countries from Axis control. Although Tito was formally an ally of Stalin after World War II, the Soviets had set up a spy ring in the Yugoslav party as early as 1945, giving way to an uneasy alliance.[159]
In the immediate aftermath of World War II, several armed incidents occurred between Yugoslavia and theWestern Allies. Following the war, Yugoslavia acquired the Italian territory ofIstria as well as the cities ofZadar andRijeka. Yugoslav leadership was looking to incorporateTrieste into the country as well, which was opposed by the Western Allies. This led to several armed incidents, notably attacks by Yugoslav fighter planes on U.S. transport aircraft, causing bitter criticism from the West. In 1946 alone, Yugoslav air-force shot down two U.S. transport aircraft. The passengers and crew of the first plane were secretly interned by the Yugoslav government. The second plane and its crew were a total loss. The U.S. was outraged and sent an ultimatum to the Yugoslav government, demanding the release of the Americans in custody, U.S. access to the downed planes, and full investigation of the incidents.[160] Stalin was opposed to what he felt were such provocations, as he believed the USSR unready to face the West in open war so soon after the losses of World War II and at the time when U.S. had operational nuclear weapons whereas the USSR had yet to conduct its first test. In addition, Tito was openly supportive of the Communist side in theGreek Civil War, while Stalin kept his distance, having agreed with Churchill not to pursue Soviet interests there, although he did support the Greek communist struggle politically, as demonstrated in several assemblies of the UN Security Council. In 1948, motivated by the desire to create a strong independent economy, Tito modelled his economic development plan independently from Moscow, which resulted in a diplomatic escalation followed by a bitter exchange of letters in which Tito wrote that "We study and take as an example the Soviet system, but we are developing socialism in our country in somewhat different forms".[161]
Iosif Grigulevich (right) was one of several Soviet agents sent by Joseph Stalin to assassinate Tito.
The Soviet answer on 4 May admonished Tito and theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) for failing to admit and correct its mistakes and went on to accuse them of being too proud of their successes against the Germans, maintaining that the Red Army had saved them from destruction. Tito's response on 17 May suggested that the matter be settled at the meeting of the Cominform to be held that June. However, Tito did not attend the second meeting of theCominform, fearing that Yugoslavia was to be openly attacked. In 1949 the crisis nearly escalated into an armed conflict, as Hungarian and Soviet forces were massing on the northern Yugoslav frontier.[162] An invasion of Yugoslavia was planned to be carried out in 1949 via the combined forces of neighbouring Soviet satellite states of Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania, followed by the subsequent removal of Tito's government. On 28 June, the other member countries of the Cominform expelled Yugoslavia, citing "nationalist elements" that had "managed in the course of the past five or six months to reach a dominant position in the leadership" of the CPY. The Hungarian and Romanian armies were expanded in size and, together with Soviet ones, massed on the Yugoslav border. The assumption in Moscow was that once it was known that he had lost Soviet approval, Tito would collapse; "I will shake my little finger, and there will be no more Tito," Stalin remarked.[163] The expulsion effectively banished Yugoslavia from the international association of socialist states, while other socialist states of Eastern Europe subsequently underwent purges of alleged "Titoists". Stalin took the matter personally and arranged several assassination attempts on Tito's life, none of which succeeded. In one correspondence between them, Tito openly wrote:[164]
Stop sending people to kill me. We've already captured five of them, one of them with a bomb and another with a rifle. [...] If you don't stop sending killers, I'll send one to Moscow, and I won't have to send a second.
One significant consequence of the tension arising between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union was Tito's decision to begin large-scale repression against enemies of the government. This repression was not limited to known and allegedStalinists but also included members of the Communist Party or anyone exhibiting sympathy towards the Soviet Union. Prominent partisans, such asVlado Dapčević andDragoljub Mićunović, were victims of this period of strong repression, which lasted until 1956 and was marked by significant violations of human rights.[165][166] Tens of thousands of political opponents served in forced labour camps, such asGoli Otok (meaning Barren Island), and hundreds died. An often disputed but relatively feasible number that was put forth by the Yugoslav government itself in 1964 places the number of Goli Otok inmates incarcerated between 1948 and 1956 to be 16,554, with less than 600 having died during detention. The facilities at Goli Otok were abandoned in 1956, and jurisdiction of the now-defunct political prison was handed over to the government of theSocialist Republic of Croatia.
Tito's estrangement from the USSR enabled Yugoslavia to obtain U.S. aid via theEconomic Cooperation Administration (ECA), the same U.S. aid institution that administered theMarshall Plan. Still, Tito did not agree to align with the West, which was a common consequence of accepting American aid at the time. After Stalin's death in 1953, relations with the USSR were relaxed, and Tito began to receive aid from theComecon as well. In this way, Tito played East–West antagonism to his advantage. Instead of choosing sides, he was instrumental in kick-starting theNon-Aligned Movement, which would function as a "third way" for countries interested in staying outside of the East–West divide.[15]
The event was significant not only for Yugoslavia and Tito, but also for the global development of socialism, since it was the first major split between Communist states, casting doubt on Comintern's claims for socialism to be a unified force that would eventually control the whole world, as Tito became the first (and the only successful) socialist leader to defy Stalin's leadership in the Cominform. This rift with theSoviet Union brought Tito much international recognition, but also triggered a period of instability often referred to as theInformbiro period. Tito's form of communism was labelled "Titoism" by Moscow, which encouraged purges and repression against suspected and accused "Titoites'" throughout theEastern Bloc.[167] Some Trotskyists considered Tito to be an 'unconscious Trotskyist' because of the split. However, this was rejected byTed Grant in 1949 who asserted there were no fundamental principled differences between Stalin and Tito. He said they were both 'proletarianBonapartists' rulingdeformed workers' states – Tito modelling his regime on that of Stalin's.[168]
"Fabrike radnicima" ("Factories to the workers") as declared by Tito was the slogan of the Yugoslavsocialist self-management system
On 26 June 1950, theNational Assembly supported a crucial bill written byMilovan Đilas and Tito regarding "socialist self-management", a type of cooperative independent socialist experiment that introducedprofit sharing andworkplace democracy in previously state-run enterprises, which then came under direct social ownership of the employees. On 13 January 1953, they established that the law on self-management was the basis of the entire social order in Yugoslavia. Tito also succeededIvan Ribar as the President of Yugoslavia on 14 January 1953, becoming the officialhead of state.[169] After Stalin's death, Tito rejected the USSR's invitation for a visit to discuss the normalisation of relations between the two nations.Nikita Khrushchev andNikolai Bulganin visited Tito in Belgrade in 1955 and apologised for wrongdoings by Stalin's administration, signing theBelgrade declaration. Tito visited the USSR in 1956, which signalled to the world that animosity between Yugoslavia and USSR was easing.[170]Rapprochement between the two countries would not last long, as Yugoslav leadership took an increasingly explicit posture of non-alignment in the aftermath of theHungarian Revolution of 1956. Relations further deteriorated in the late 1960s because of Yugoslav economic reforms which consciously linked Yugoslavia to the international system, as well as Tito's support for thePrague Spring, which itself found much of its inspiration in Yugoslav market socialism, and opposition to the subsequentWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.[171]
The Tito–Stalin split had large ramifications for countries outside the USSR and Yugoslavia. It has, for example, been given as one of the reasons for theSlánský trial in Czechoslovakia, in which 14 high-level Communist officials were purged, with 11 of them being executed. Stalin put pressure on Czechoslovakia to conduct purges in order to discourage the spread of the idea of a "national path to socialism", which Tito espoused.[172]
Under Tito's leadership, Yugoslavia became a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement. In 1961, Tito co-founded the movement with Egypt'sGamal Abdel Nasser, India'sJawaharlal Nehru, Indonesia'sSukarno and Ghana'sKwame Nkrumah, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Tito, Nehru, Nasser, Sukarno, Nkrumah), thus establishing strong ties withthird world countries. This move did much to improve Yugoslavia's diplomatic position. Tito saw the Non-Aligned Movement as a way of presenting himself as a world leader of an important bloc of nations that would improve his bargaining power with both the eastern and western blocs.[173] On 1 September 1961, Josip Broz Tito became the firstSecretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Tito's foreign policy led to relationships with a variety of governments, such as exchanging visits (1954 and 1956) withEmperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, where a street was named in his honour. In 1953, Tito visited Ethiopia, and in 1954, the Emperor visited Yugoslavia.[174] Tito's motives in befriending Ethiopia were somewhat self-interested as he wanted to send recent graduates of Yugoslav universities (whose standards were not up to those of Western universities, thus making them unemployable in the West) to work in Ethiopia, which was one of the few countries that was willing to accept them.[173] As Ethiopia did not have much of a health care system or a university system, Haile Selassie, from 1953 onward, encouraged the graduates of Yugoslav universities, especially with medical degrees, to come work in his empire.[174] Reflecting his tendency to pursue closer ties with Third World nations, from 1950 onward, Tito permitted Mexican films to be shown in Yugoslavia, where they became very popular, especially the 1950 filmUn día de vida, which become a huge hit when it premiered in Yugoslavia in 1952.[175] The success of Mexican films led to the "Yu-Mex" craze of the 1950s–1960s as Mexican music became popular, and it was fashionable for many Yugoslav musicians to donsombreros and sing Mexican songs in Serbo-Croatian.[176]
Tito was notable for pursuing a foreign policy of neutrality during theCold War and for establishing close ties with developing countries. Tito's strong belief inself-determination caused the 1948 rift with Stalin and, consequently, theEastern Bloc. His public speeches often reiterated that policy of neutrality and co-operation with all countries would be natural as long as these countries did not use their influence to pressure Yugoslavia to take sides. Relations with the United States and Western European nations were generally cordial.
In the early 1950s, Yugoslav-Hungarian relations were strained as Tito made little secret of his distaste for the StalinistMátyás Rákosi and his preference for the "national communist"Imre Nagy instead.[177] Tito's decision to create a "Balkan Pact" by signing a treaty of alliance with NATO members Turkey and Greece in 1954 was regarded as tantamount to joining NATO in Soviet eyes, and his vague talk of a neutralist Communist federation of Eastern European states was seen as a major threat in Moscow.[178] TheYugoslav embassy in Budapest was seen by the Soviets as a centre of subversion in Hungary as they accused Yugoslav diplomats and journalists, sometimes with justification, of supporting Nagy.[179] However, when therevolt broke out in Hungary in October 1956, Tito accused Nagy of losing control of the situation, as he wanted a Communist Hungary independent of the Soviet Union, not the overthrow of Hungarian communism.[180] On 31 October 1956, Tito ordered the Yugoslav media to stop praising Nagy and he quietly supported the Soviet intervention on 4 November to end the revolt in Hungary, as he believed that a Hungary ruled by anti-communists would pursue irredentist claims against Yugoslavia, as had just been the case during the interwar period.[180] To escape from the Soviets, Nagy fled to the Yugoslav embassy, where Tito granted him asylum.[181] On 5 November 1956, Soviet tanks shelled the Yugoslav embassy in Budapest, killing the Yugoslav cultural attache and several other diplomats.[182] Tito's refusal to turn over Nagy, despite increasingly shrill Soviet demands that he do so, served his purposes well with relations with the Western states, as he was presented in the Western media as the "good communist" who stood up to Moscow by sheltering Nagy and the other Hungarian leaders.[183] On 22 November, Nagy and his cabinet left the embassy on a bus that took them into exile in Yugoslavia after the new Hungarian leader,János Kádár had promised Tito in writing that they would not be harmed.[182] Much to Tito's fury, when the bus left the Yugoslav embassy, it was promptly boarded by KGB agents who arrested the Hungarian leaders and roughly handled the Yugoslav diplomats who tried to protect them.[182] Nagy's kidnapping, followed by his execution, almost led Yugoslavia to break off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, and in 1957 Tito boycotted the ceremonials in Moscow for the 40thanniversary of the October Revolution, the only communist leader who did not attend.[184]
Yugoslavia provided major assistance to anti-colonialist movements in the Third World. The Yugoslav delegation was the first to bring the demands of theAlgerian National Liberation Front (FLN) to the United Nations. In January 1958, theFrench Navy boarded theSlovenija cargo ship offOran, whose holds were filled with weapons for the insurgents. Diplomat Danilo Milić explained that "Tito and the leading nucleus of theLeague of Communists of Yugoslavia really saw in the Third World's liberation struggles a replica of their own struggle against the fascist occupants. They vibrated to the rhythm of the advances or setbacks of the FLN orViet Cong.[186]
Thousands of Yugoslavmilitary advisors travelled toGuinea after its decolonisation and as the French government tried to destabilise the country. Tito also covertly helped left-wing liberation movements to destabilise thePortuguese colonial empire. He saw the murder ofPatrice Lumumba in 1961 as the "greatest crime in contemporary history". The country's military academies hosted left-wing activists fromSWAPO (Namibia) and thePan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa) as part of Tito's efforts to undermineapartheid in South Africa. In 1980, theintelligence services of South Africa and Argentina plotted to return the 'favour' by covertly bringing 1,500 anti-urban communist guerrillas to Yugoslavia. The operation was aimed at overthrowing Tito and was planned during the1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow so that the Soviets would be too busy to react. The operation was finally abandoned due to Tito's death.[186]
In 1953, Tito travelled to Britain for a state visit and met withWinston Churchill. He also touredCambridge and visited the University Library.[187]
Tito visited India from 22 December 1954 to 8 January 1955.[188] After his return, he removed many restrictions on Yugoslavia's churches and spiritual institutions.
Tito andJimmy Carter hold a meeting between U.S. and Yugoslav officials in 1978
Tito also developed warm relations withBurma underU Nu, travelling to the country in 1955 and again in 1959, though he did not receive the same treatment in 1959 from the new leader,Ne Win. Tito had an especially close friendship with PrinceNorodom Sihanouk ofCambodia, who preached an eccentric mixture of monarchism,Buddhism and socialism, and, like Tito, wanted his country to be neutral in the Cold War.[189] Tito saw Sihanouk as something of a kindred soul who, like him, had to struggle to maintain his backward country's neutrality in the face of rival power blocs.[189] By contrast, Tito strongly disliked PresidentIdi Amin ofUganda, whom he saw as thuggish and possibly insane.[190]
A butcher shop inMaribor adorned with a portrait of Tito, 1957
Starting in the 1950s, Tito's government permitted Yugoslav workers to go to western Europe, especially West Germany, asGastarbeiter ("guest workers").[196] The exposure of many Yugoslavs to the West and its culture led many Yugoslavians to view themselves as culturally closer to Western Europe than Eastern Europe.[197] In the autumn of 1960, Tito met PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower at theUnited Nations General Assembly meeting. They discussed a range of issues from arms control to economic development. When Eisenhower remarked that Yugoslavia's neutrality was "neutral on his side", Tito replied that neutrality did not imply passivity but meant "not taking sides".[198] On 7 April 1963, the country changed its official name from "Federal People's Republic" to "Socialist Federal Republic" of Yugoslavia.Economic reforms encouragedsmallscaleprivate enterprise (up to five full-time workers; most of these werefamily businesses and largest inagriculture)[199] and greatly relaxed restrictions on religious expression.[185] Tito subsequently toured the Americas. In Chile, two government ministers resigned over his visit to that country.[200][201]
Tito's calling card from 1967
In 1966, an agreement with theHoly See, fostered in part by the death in 1960 of the anti-communist archbishop of ZagrebAloysius Stepinac and shifts in the church's approach to resisting communism originating in theSecond Vatican Council, accorded new freedom to the Yugoslav Roman Catholic Church, particularly to catechise and open seminaries. The agreement also eased tensions, which had prevented the naming of new bishops in Yugoslavia since 1945. Holy See and Yugoslavia reconciledtheir relations[202] and worked together on achieving peace inVietnam.[203] Tito's new socialism met opposition from traditional communists culminating in a conspiracy headed byAleksandar Ranković.[204] Allegedly, the charge on which he was removed from power and expelled from the LCY was that hebugged Tito's working and sleeping quarters as well as those of many other high government officials. For almost 20 years, Ranković was at the head of theState Security Administration (UDBA), as well as Federal Secretary of Internal Affairs. His position as a party whip and Tito's way of controlling and monitoring the government and, to a certain extent, the people bothered many, especially the younger generation of government officials who were working toward a more liberal Yugoslav society. In the same year, Tito declared that communists must henceforth chart Yugoslavia's course by the force of their arguments (implying an abandonment of Leninist orthodoxy and development ofliberal socialism).[205]
On 1 January 1967, Yugoslavia became the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements.[206] In the same year Tito became active in promoting a peaceful resolution of theArab–Israeli conflict. His plan called for Arabs to recognise the state of Israel in exchange forterritories Israel newly occupied.[207]
In 1968, Tito offered to fly toPrague on three hours' notice if Czechoslovak leaderAlexander Dubček needed help in facing down the Soviets.[208] In April 1969, Tito removed generalsIvan Gošnjak andRade Hamović in the aftermath of theinvasion of Czechoslovakia due to the unpreparedness of the Yugoslav army to respond to a similar invasion of Yugoslavia.[209]
In 1971, the Federal Assembly reelected Tito as president of Yugoslavia for the sixth time. In his speech before the Federal Assembly, he introduced 20 sweeping constitutional amendments to provide an updated framework on which the country would be based. The amendments provided for a collective presidency, a 22-member body consisting of elected representatives from six republics and two autonomous provinces. The body would have a single chairman of the presidency, and chairmanship would rotate among six republics. When the Federal Assembly failed to agree on legislation, the collective presidency would have the power to rule by decree. Amendments also provided for a stronger cabinet with considerable power to initiate and pursue legislation independently from the Communist Party.Džemal Bijedić was chosen as the Premier. The new amendments aimed to decentralise the country by granting greater autonomy to republics and provinces. The federal government would retain authority only over foreign affairs, defence, internal security, monetary affairs, free trade within Yugoslavia, and development loans to poorer regions. Control of education, healthcare, and housing would be exercised entirely by the governments of the republics and the autonomous provinces.[210]
Tito's greatest strength, in the eyes of the western communists,[211] had been in suppressing nationalist insurrections and maintaining unity throughout the country. It was Tito's call forbrotherhood and unity, and related methods, that held together the people of Yugoslavia.[212] This ability was put to a test several times during his reign, notably during theCroatian Spring (also referred as theMasovni pokret or Maspok for short, meaning "Mass Movement") when the government suppressed both public demonstrations and dissenting opinions within the Communist Party. Despite this suppression, much of Maspok's demands, including for decentralisation, were later realised with the new constitution, heavily backed by Tito himself against opposition from theSerbian branch of the party, who favoured centralisation.[citation needed] On 16 May 1974, the newConstitution was passed, and the 82-year-old Tito was namedpresident for life. But the 1974 constitution caused issues for the Yugoslavian economy and distorted its market mechanism, leading to escalation of ethnic tensions.[213]
Tito's visits to the U.S. avoided most of the Northeast due to large minorities of Yugoslav emigrants bitter about communism in Yugoslavia.[214] Security for the state visits was usually high to keep him away from protesters, who frequently burned theYugoslav flag.[215] During a visit to the United Nations in the late 1970s, emigrants shouted "Tito murderer" outside his New York hotel, which he protested to United States authorities.[216]
After the constitutional changes of 1974, Tito began reducing his role in the day-to-day running of the state, transferring much of it to the prime minister who was the head of government, but retained the final word on all major policy decisions as president and head of state and as the head of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The 40th anniversary of hiscommunist party leadership was observed on the Youth Day of 1977 throughout Yugoslavia.[217] He continued totravel abroad and receive foreign visitors, going to Beijing in 1977 and reconciling with theChinese leadership that had once branded him a revisionist. In turn, ChairmanHua Guofeng visited Yugoslavia in 1979. In 1978, Tito travelled to the U.S. During the visit, strict security was imposed in Washington, D.C., owing to protests by anti-communist Croat, Serb and Albanian groups.[218]
Tito became increasingly ill over the course of 1979. During this time,Vila Srna was built for his use nearMorović in the event of his recovery.[219] On 7 January and again on 12 January 1980, Tito was admitted to theMedical Centre in Ljubljana, the capital city of theSR Slovenia, withcirculation problems in his legs. Tito's stubbornness and refusal to allow doctors to follow through with the necessary amputation of his left leg played a part in his eventual death ofgangrene-induced infection. His adjutant later testified that Tito threatened to take his own life if his leg was ever amputated and that he had to hide Tito's pistol in fear that he would follow through on his threat. After a private conversation with his sons Žarko andMišo Broz, he finally agreed, and his left leg was amputated due to arterial blockages. The amputation proved to be too late, and Tito died at the Medical Centre of Ljubljana on 4 May 1980, three days short of his 88th birthday.[citation needed]
Thestate funeral of Josip Broz Tito drew many world statesmen.[220] It attracted government leaders from 129 states.[221] Based on the number of attending politicians and state delegations, at the time it was thelargest state funeral in history; this concentration of dignitaries would be unmatched until thefuneral of Pope John Paul II in 2005 and thememorial service of Nelson Mandela in 2013.[222] Those who attended included four kings, 31 presidents, six princes, 22 prime ministers, and 47 ministers of foreign affairs. They came from both sides of the Cold War, from 128 countries out of 154 UN members at the time.[223]
Tito sought to improve life. Unlike others who rose to power on the communist wave after WWII, Tito did not long demand that his people suffer for a distant vision of a better life. After an initial Soviet-influenced bleak period, Tito moved toward radical improvement of life in the country. Yugoslavia gradually became a bright spot amid the general grayness of Eastern Europe.
Tito was interred in theHouse of Flowers, a mausoleum in Belgrade which forms part of a memorial complex in the grounds of theMuseum of Yugoslav History (formerly called "Museum 25 May" and "Museum of the Revolution"). The museum keeps the gifts Tito received during his presidency. The collection includes original prints ofLos Caprichos byFrancisco Goya, and many others.[225]
Dominic McGoldrick writes that as the head of a "highly centralised and oppressive" regime, Tito wielded tremendous power in Yugoslavia, with his authoritarian rule administered through an elaborate bureaucracy that routinely suppressed human rights.[7] The main victims of this repression during the first years were known and alleged Stalinists, such asDragoslav Mihailović andDragoljub Mićunović, but in later years, even some of the most prominent of Tito's collaborators were arrested. On 19 November 1956,Milovan Đilas, perhaps the closest of Tito's collaborators, widely regarded as his possible successor, was arrested because of his criticism of Tito's regime.Victor Sebestyen writes that Tito "was as brutal as" Stalin.[226] The repression did not exclude intellectuals and writers, such asVenko Markovski, who was arrested and sent to jail in January 1956 for writing poems considered anti-Titoist.
Even if, after the reforms of 1961, Tito's presidency had become comparatively more liberal than other communist regimes, the Communist Party continued to alternate between liberalism and repression.[227] Yugoslavia managed to remain independent from the Soviet Union, and its brand of socialism was in many ways the envy of Eastern Europe, but Tito's Yugoslavia remained a tightly controlledpolice state.[228] According toDavid Matas, outside the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia had morepolitical prisoners than all of the rest of Eastern Europe combined.[229] Tito's secret police were modelled on the SovietKGB. Its members were ever-present and oftenacted extrajudicially,[230] with victims including middle-class intellectuals, liberals and democrats.[231] Yugoslavia was a signatory to theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, but scant regard was paid to its provisions.[232]
Tito's Yugoslavia was based on respect for nationality, though Tito ruthlessly purged any flowerings of nationalism that threatened the Yugoslav federation.[233] But the contrast between the deference given to some ethnic groups and the severe repression of others was sharp. Yugoslav law guaranteed nationalities to use their language, but for ethnic Albanians, the assertion of ethnic identity was severely limited. Almost half ofYugoslavia's political prisoners were ethnic Albanians imprisoned for asserting their ethnic identity.[234]
Yugoslavia's post-war development was impressive, but the country ran into economic snags around 1970 and experienced significant unemployment and inflation.[235]
Declassified documents from the CIA state in 1967, it was already clear that although Tito's economic model had achieved growth of thegross national product around 7%, it also created frequently unwise industrial investment and a chronic deficit in the nation'sbalance of payment. In the 1970s, uncontrolled growth often created chronic inflation, which Tito and the Party could not fully stabilise or moderate. Yugoslavia also paid high interest on loans compared to theLIBOR rate, but Tito's presence eased investors' fears since he had proven willing and able to implement unpopular reforms. By 1979 with Tito's passing on the horizon, a global downturn in the economy, consistently increasing unemployment and growth slowing to 5.9% throughout the 1970s, it had become likely that "the rapid economic growth to which the Yugoslavs [had] become accustomed" would aggressively decline.[236][237]
With the passing of the1974 Yugoslav Constitution, Tito initiated what, according to A. Ross Johnson of theUnited States Department of State, "constituted the first effort in postwar Yugoslavia (and the first attempt in any Communist system) to establishdepersonalised andinstitutionalised 'rules of the game' in Party decision-making bodies intended to apply to theperiod of succession."[238] This system created astate andparty presidency that wasgoverned collectively, each limited to one yearterm of office.[239] But this system might have contributed to the collapse of Yugoslavia, according to professor Robert M. Hayden: "While perhaps no federal structure could have contained the political pressures of Yugoslavia in 1989/91, the flaws of the 1974 constitution served to ensure that they became unmanageable, thus making civil war virtually inevitable. Responsibility for the war must thus be shared, between the Slovenes, whose actions destroyed the federal structure,[Slobodan] Milošević, whose aggressive politics goaded the Slovenes into doing so, and the drafters of the constitution, who made the chimaera of a "confederation" seem a reasonable constitutional structure."[240]
Statue of Tito in the village of his birth,KumrovecMarshal Tito Street inSkopje (Yugoslav People's Army provide support after26 July 1963 earthquake)Tito memorabilia in a market inSarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2009"Long live Tito", graffiti inMostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2009Graffiti inLjubljana, Slovenia, 2012
Tito is credited with transforming Yugoslavia from a poor nation to a middle-income one that saw vast improvements in women's rights, health, education, urbanisation, industrialisation, and many other areas of human and economic development.[241] A 2010 poll found that as many as 81% of Serbians believe that life was better under Tito.[242] Tito also ranked first in the "Greatest Croatian" poll which was conducted in 2003 by the Croatian weekly news magazineNacional.[243]
During his life and especially in the first year after his death, several places werenamed after Tito; several of these have since returned to their original names.
For example,Podgorica, formerly Titograd (thoughPodgorica's international airport is still identified by the code TGD), andUžice, formerly known as Titovo Užice, which reverted to its original name in 1992. Streets in Belgrade, the capital, have all reverted to their original pre-World War II and pre-communist names as well. In 2004,Antun Augustinčić's statue of Broz in his birthplace ofKumrovec was decapitated in an explosion.[244] It was subsequently repaired. Twice in 2008, protests took place in what was then Zagreb's Marshal Tito Square (since 2017 theRepublic of Croatia Square), organised by a group called Circle for the Square (Krug za Trg), with an aim to force the city government to rename it to its previous name, while a counter-protest by Citizens' Initiative AgainstUstašism (Građanska inicijativa protiv ustaštva) accused the "Circle for the Square" ofhistorical revisionism andneo-fascism.[245] Croatian presidentStjepan Mesić criticised the demonstration to change the name.[246]
In the Croatian coastal city ofOpatija the main street (also its longest street) still bears the name of Marshal Tito.Rijeka, third largest city inCroatia, also refuses to change the name of one of the squares in the city centre named after Tito. There are streets named after Tito in numerous towns in Serbia, mostly in the country's north (Vojvodina).[citation needed] One of the main streets in downtownSarajevo is calledMarshal Tito Street, and Tito's statue in a park in front of theuniversity campus (ex.JNA barrack "Maršal Tito") inMarijin Dvor is a place where Bosnians and Sarajevans still today commemorate and pay tribute to Tito. The largest Tito monument in the world, about 10 m (33 ft) high, is in Tito Square (Slovene:Titov trg), the central square inVelenje, Slovenia.[247][248] One of the main bridges in Slovenia's second largest city ofMaribor is Tito Bridge (Slovene:Titov most).[249] The central square inKoper, the largest Slovenian port city, is named Tito Square.[250] The main-belt asteroid1550 Tito, discovered by Serbian astronomerMilorad B. Protić atBelgrade Observatory in 1937, was named in his honour.[251]
The Croat historian Marijana Belaj wrote that for some people in Croatia and other parts of the former Yugoslavia, Tito is remembered as a sort of secular saint, mentioning how some Croats keep portraits of Catholic saints together with a portrait of Tito on their walls as a way to bring hope.[252] The practice of writing letters to Tito has continued well after his death with several websites in former Yugoslavia devoted entirely as forums for people to send him posthumous letters, in which they often write about personal problems.[252] Every year on 25 May, several thousand people from the former Yugoslavia gather in Tito's hometown of Kumrovec[253] and his resting place, House of Flowers,[254] to pay tribute to his memory[255] and celebrate the former country'sYouth Day, which in the Yugoslav era was one of the biggest annual celebrations and was marked by theRelay of Youth with a birthday pledge to Tito. Belaj wrote that much of the Tito cult's posthumous appeal centres around Tito's everyman persona and his image as a "friend" to ordinary people, in contrast to the way in whichStalin was depicted inhis cult of personality as a cold, aloof, godlike figure whose extraordinary qualities set him apart from ordinary people.[256] Most of those who come to Kumrovec on 25 May to kiss Tito's statue are women.[257] Belaji wrote that the Tito cult's appeal today owes less to communism, observing that most people who come to Kumrovec do not believe in communism, than to nostalgia for Tito's Yugoslavia and affection for an "ordinary man" who became great.[258] Tito was not a Croat nationalist, but the fact that Tito became the world's most famous Croat, serving as the leader of the Non-Aligned Movement and being seen as an important world leader, inspires pride in certain quarters of Croatia.[259]
Every year a "Brotherhood and Unity" relay race is organised in Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia that ends on 25 May at the "House of Flowers", Tito's final resting place. At the same time, runners in Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina set off for Kumrovec. The relay is a leftover from theRelay of Youth from Yugoslav times, when young people made a similar yearly trek on foot through Yugoslavia that ended in Belgrade with a massive celebration.[260]
In the years following Yugoslavia's dissolution, historians started highlighting that human rights were suppressed in Yugoslavia under Tito,[7][261] particularly in the first decade before the Tito–Stalin split. On 4 October 2011, theSlovenian Constitutional Court found a 2009 naming of a street in Ljubljana after Tito to be unconstitutional.[262] While several public areas inSlovenia (named during the Yugoslav period) already bear Tito's name, on the issue of renaming an additional streetthe court ruled that:
The name "Tito" does not only symbolise the liberation of the territory of present-day Slovenia from fascist occupation in World War II, as claimed by the other party in the case but also grave violations of human rights and basic freedoms, especially in the decade following World War II.[263]
But the court made clear that the purpose of the review was "not a verdict on Tito as a figure or on his concrete actions, as well as not a historical weighing of facts and circumstances".[262] Slovenia has several streets and squares named after Tito, notablyTito Square inVelenje, incorporating a 10-meter statue.
Some scholars have named Tito as responsible for thesystematic eradication of the ethnic German (Danube Swabian) population inVojvodina by expulsions and mass executions following the collapse of the German occupation of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, in contrast to his inclusive attitude towards other Yugoslav nationalities.[264]
Tito was married several times and had numerous affairs. In 1918 he was brought toOmsk, Russia, as a prisoner of war. There he metPelagija Belousova [sh], who was then 14; he married her a year later, and she moved with him to Yugoslavia. They had five children, but only their sonŽarko Leon Broz [ru;sh][265] (born 4 February[265] 1924) survived.[266] When Tito was jailed in 1928, Belousova returned to Russia. After the divorce in 1936, she remarried.
In 1936, when Tito stayed at theHotel Lux in Moscow, he met the AustrianLucia Bauer [sh]. They married in October 1936, but the records of this marriage were later deliberately erased.[267]
His next relationship was withHerta Haas, whom he married in 1940.[268] Tito left for Belgrade after theApril War, leaving Haas pregnant. In May 1941, she gave birth to their son,Aleksandar "Mišo" Broz. Throughout his relationship with Haas, Tito maintained a promiscuous life and had a parallel relationship withDavorjanka Paunović [sr], who, under the codename "Zdenka Horvat", served as a courier in the resistance and became his personal secretary. Haas and Tito suddenly parted company in 1943 inJajce during the second meeting ofAVNOJ after she reportedly walked in on him and Davorjanka.[269] The last time Haas saw Broz was in 1946.[270] Davorjanka died oftuberculosis in 1946, and Tito insisted that she be buried in the backyard of theBeli Dvor, his Belgrade residence.[271]
His best-known wife wasJovanka Broz. Tito was just shy of his 60th birthday and she was 27 when they married in April 1952, with state security chiefAleksandar Ranković as the best man. Their marriage came about somewhat unexpectedly since Tito actually rejected her some years earlier when his confidanteIvan Stevo Krajačić [sr] originally presented her to him. At that time, she was in her early 20s, and Tito objected to her upbeat personality. Not one to be easily discouraged, Jovanka continued working atBeli Dvor, where she managed the staff and eventually got another chance. But their relationship was not happy. It had gone through many, often public, ups and downs, with episodes of infidelity and even allegations of preparation for acoup d'état by the latter pair. Certain unofficial reports suggest Tito and Jovanka formally divorced in the late 1970s, shortly before his death, but during Tito's funeral, she was present in an official capacity as his wife and later claimed inheritance rights. The couple had no children.
Tito's grandchildren includeSaša Broz, a theatre director in Croatia;Svetlana Broz, a cardiologist and writer in Bosnia and Herzegovina;Josip Broz (better-known asJoška Broz), a politician in Serbia; Edvard Broz and Natali Klasevski, an artisan of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
As president, Tito had access to extensive (state-owned) property associated with the office and maintained a lavish lifestyle. In Belgrade, he resided in the official residence, the Beli Dvor, and maintained a separate private home at 10 Užička Street. TheBrijuni Islands were the site of the State Summer Residence from 1949 on. The pavilion was designed byJože Plečnik and included a zoo. Close to 100 foreign heads of state visited Tito at the island residence, along with film stars such asElizabeth Taylor,Richard Burton,Sophia Loren,Carlo Ponti, andGina Lollobrigida. On the island of Brijuni, a museum displays photos of the many visitors that Tito received over more than three decades.[272]
Another residence was maintained atLake Bled, while the grounds atKarađorđevo were the site of "diplomatic hunts". By 1974 Tito had at his disposal 32 official residences, large and small,[273] the yachtGaleb ("seagull"), aBoeing 727 as the presidential aeroplane, and theBlue Train.[274] After his death, the presidential Boeing 727 was sold toAviogenex, theGaleb remained docked in Montenegro, and the Blue Train was stored in a Serbian train shed for over two decades.[275][276] While Tito was the person who held the office of president for by far the longest period, the associated property was not private, and much of it continues to be used by national governments, as public property or for use by high-ranking officials.
Tito claimed to speakSerbo-Croatian, German, Russian, and some English.[277] His official biographer and then fellow Central Committee-memberVladimir Dedijer said in 1953 that he spoke "Serbo-Croatian ... Russian, Czech, Slovenian ... German (with a Viennese accent) ... understands and reads French and Italian ... [and] also speaksKazakh."[278] At the 38thWorld Esperanto Congress held in Zagreb in 1953, Tito revealed his knowledge ofEsperanto, which he had learned during his time in prison.[279]
In his youth, Tito attended Catholic Sunday school and was later an altar boy. After an incident where he was slapped and shouted at by a priest when he had difficulty helping the priest remove his vestments, Tito did not cross another church's threshold. As an adult, he identified as an atheist.[280]
Every federal unit had a town or city with historical significance toWorld War II renamed to include Tito's name. The largest of these wasTitograd, nowPodgorica, the capital city ofMontenegro. With the exception of Titograd, the cities were renamed simply by the addition of the adjectiveTitov 'Tito's'. The names reverted to their original names after theFall of Communism. The cities were:
In the years after Tito's death and up to the present, manyconspiracy theories have been put forward suggesting the existence of several people who were actually Tito, none with any serious evidence to support them.[281] Serbian journalistVladan Dinić argued inTito Is Not Tito that three separate people had identified as Tito.[282] Tito's personal physician, Aleksandar Matunović, wrote a book[283] about Tito in which he questioned his true origins, noting that Tito's habits and lifestyle could mean only that he was from an aristocratic family.[284]
In 2013, media coverage was given to a declassifiedNSA study inCryptologic Spectrum that concluded Tito had not spoken Serbo-Croatian like a native speaker. The report noted that his speech had features of other Slavic languages (Russian and Polish). The hypothesis that "a non-Yugoslav, perhaps a Russian or a Pole" assumed Tito's identity was included with a note that this had happened during or before the Second World War.[285] The report notesDraža Mihailović's impressions of Tito's Russian origins after he had personally spoken with Tito.
However, the NSA's report was disputed by Croatian experts. The report failed to recognise that Tito was a native speaker of the very distinctive localKajkavian dialect of Zagorje. His strong accent, present only in Croatian dialects, which Tito was able to pronounce perfectly, is the strongest evidence for his Zagorje origins.[286]
As the Communist Party was outlawed in Yugoslavia starting on 30 December 1920, Josip Broz took on many assumed names during his activity within the Party, including "Rudi", "Walter", and "Tito".[287] Broz himself explains:
It was a rule in the Party in those times not to use one's real name, in order to reduce the chances of exposure. For instance, if someone working with me was arrested, and flogged into revealing my real name, the police would easily trace me. But the police never knew the real person hiding behind an assumed name, such as I had in the Party. Naturally, even the assumed names often had to be changed. Even before going to prison, I had taken the name of Gligorijević, and of Zagorac, meaning the 'man from Zagorje'. I even signed a few newspaper articles with the second.Now I had to take a new name. I adopted first the name of Rudi, but another comrade had the same name and so I was obliged to change it, adopting the name Tito. I hardly ever used Tito at first; I assumed it exclusively in 1938, when I began to sign articles with it. Why did I take this name 'Tito' and has it special significance? I took it as I would have any other, because it occurred to me at the moment. Apart from that, this name is quite frequent in my native district. The best-known Zagorje writer of the late eighteenth century was calledTito Brezovački; his witty comedies are still given in the Croatian theatre after more than a hundred years. The father ofKsaver Šandor Gjalski, one of the greatest Croatian writers, was also called Tito.[288]
The decorations were seldom displayed, however. After theTito–Stalin split of 1948 and his inauguration as president in 1953, Tito rarely wore his uniform except when present in a military function, and then (with rare exception) only wore his Yugoslav ribbons for obvious practical reasons. The awards were displayed in full number only at his funeral in 1980.[289] Tito's reputation as one of theAllied leaders ofWorld War II, along with his diplomatic position as the founder of theNon-Aligned Movement, was primarily the cause of the favourable international recognition.[289]
^After Tito became president of Yugoslavia, he celebrated his birthday on 25 May to markthe unsuccessful 1944 Nazi attempt on his life. The Germans found forged documents that stated 25 May was Tito's birthday and attacked him on that day.[16]
^Despite there being "not the slightest doubt" about the name, date and location of Tito's birth, many people in all parts of the former Yugoslavia give credence to various rumours about his origins.[17] (see the section§ Language and identity dispute)
^Ridley notes that since his death, there have been stories written about this period in his life, some of which state that he married a Czech girl in 1912, with whom he had a son. According to Ridley, these stories are "almost impossible to verify".[32]
^Ridley notes that some popular biographers falsely claim that he married for a second time in Vienna and had a son.[37]
^When he was conscripted into the army, his date of birth was recorded as 5 March 1892.[39]
^Vinterhalter states that he was promoted to sergeant after completing non-commissioned officer (NCO) training.[41]
^West gives the date as 21 March,[49] and Ridley says 4 April
^West states that the marriage occurred in mid-1919.[61]
^"Josip Broz Tito".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved27 April 2010.Tito was faced with a choice: either continue the Westward course and give up one-party dictatorship (an idea promoted by Milovan Djilas but rejected by Tito in January 1954) ...
^Roberts, Walter R. (1973).Tito, Mihailović, and the Allies 1941–1945. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 309.Churchill, who said that Tito was a dictator ...
^Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (1992).Tito – Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press.
^Shapiro, Susan G.; Shapiro, Ronald (2004).The Curtain Rises: Oral Histories of the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. McFarland.ISBN978-0-7864-1672-1....All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality. Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism.
^Bokovoy, Melissa Katherine; Irvine, Jill A.; Lilly, Carol S. (1997).State-society Relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 36.ISBN0-312-12690-5....Of course, Tito was a popular figure, both in Yugoslavia and outside it, and he was respected internationally, including by the leadership of both superpowers.
^Cottam, Martha L.; Dietz-Uhler, Beth; Mastors, Elena; Preston, Thomas (2009).Introduction to political psychology.Psychology Press. p. 243.ISBN978-1-84872-881-3....Tito himself became a unifying symbol. He was charismatic and very popular among the citizens of Yugoslavia.
^abWilletts, Peter (1978).The Non-aligned Movement: The Origins of a Third World Alliance. p. xiv.
^Pavlaković, Vjeran. Stojaković, Krunoslav (ed.)."Yugoslav Volunteers in the Spanish Civil War"(PDF).Research Paper Series of Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung Southeast Europe (4). Hodges, Andrew (proofreader).Rosa Luxemburg Foundation: 65. Retrieved1 August 2023 – via Eurom – The European Observatory on Memories.
^Pavlaković, Vjeran (2020)."The Spanish Civil War and the Yugoslav Successor States".Contemporary European History.29 (3):279–281.doi:10.1017/s0960777320000272.S2CID225510860. Retrieved31 July 2023.Although there is no evidence that Tito actually crossed into Spain during the war, we know that he was crucial in coordinating the Yugoslav volunteers from Paris and subsequently organising their return from German labour camps once the decision to mount an armed resistance in Yugoslavia was made in 1941.
^Kurapovna, Marcia (2009).Shadows on the Mountain: The Allies, the Resistance, and the Rivalries That Doomed WWII Yugoslavia. John Wiley and Sons. p. 87.ISBN978-0-470-08456-4.
^Hall, Richard C. (2014).War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 36, 350.ISBN978-1610690317.
^Nolan, Cathal (2002).The Greenwood Encyclopedia of International Relations: S-Z. Greenwood Press. p. 1668.ISBN978-0-313-32383-6.
^Leffler, Melvyn P. (2009).The Cambridge History of the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. p. 201.ISBN978-0-521-83719-4.
^Sindbaek, Tia (2012).Usable History: Representations of Difficult Pasts in Yugoslavia – 1945 and 2002. Aarhus University Press. p. 55.ISBN978-8779345683. "The trial was also covered in numerous newspapers outside Yugoslavia, largely perceived as a classic communist show trial, and Stepinac as a martyred religious leader."
^Matas 1994, p. 37 "Human rights violations were observed in silence... It was not only that the wide list of verbal crimes flouted international human rights law and international obligations Yugoslavia had undertaken. Yugoslavia, a signatory to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, paid scant regard to some of its provisions."
^ab"Socialism of Sorts".Time. 10 June 1966. Archived fromthe original on 22 November 2007. Retrieved27 April 2010.Today, as the rest of Eastern Europe begins to catch on, Yugoslavia remains the most autonomous, open, idiosyncratic and unCommunist Communist country anywhere on earth. ...Families are being encouraged by the Communist government to indulge in such capitalist practices as investing in restaurants, inns, shoe-repair shops and motels. ...Alone among Red peoples, Yugoslavs may freely travel to the West. ...Belgrade and the Vatican announced that this month they will sign an agreement according new freedom to the Yugoslav Roman Catholic Church, particularly to teach the catechism and open seminaries.
^"Paraguay: A Country Study: Foreign Relations". Retrieved11 April 2009.Foreign policy under Stroessner was based on two major principles: nonintervention in the affairs of other countries and no relations with countries underMarxist governments. The only exception to the second principle was Yugoslavia.
^Lees, Lorraine M. (2010).Keeping Tito Afloat: The United States, Yugoslavia, and the Cold War, 1945–1960. Penn State Press. pp. 233, 234.ISBN978-0271040639.
^Mitchell, Laurence (2010).Serbia. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 23.ISBN978-1841623269.
^Rogel, Carole (1998).The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the War in Bosnia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16.ISBN978-0313299186. Retrieved5 July 2013.Tito's successors were less committed than he was to preserving Yugoslav unity; some even plotted the state's dismemberment. Tito in a way was the country's last unifying force; for many he was the glue that had held Yugoslavia together until 1980.
^Sebestyen, Victor (2014).1946: The Making of the Modern World. Macmillan. p. 148.ISBN978-0230758001.Tito was as brutal as his one-time mentor Stalin, with whom he was later to fall out but with whom he shared a taste for bloody revenge against enemies, real or imagined. Churchill called Tito 'the great Balkan tentacle', but that did not prevent him from making a similar deal like the one he had made with the Soviets.
^Bartulovič, Alenka."Spomenik Josipu Brozu Titu v Velenju" [The Monument to Josip Broz Tito in Velenje]. In Šmid Hribar, Mateja; Golež, Gregor; Podjed, Dan; Kladnik, Drago; Erhartič, Bojan; Pavlin, Primož; Ines, Jerele (eds.).Enciklopedija naravne in kulturne dediščine na Slovenskem – DEDI [Encyclopedia of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Slovenia] (in Slovenian). Archived fromthe original on 28 October 2012. Retrieved12 March 2012.
^"Monument of Josip Broz". Tourist Information and Promotion Center Velenje. Archived fromthe original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved10 November 2012.
^Cohen, Bertram D.; Ettin, Mark F.; Fidler, Jay W. (2002).Group Psychotherapy and Political Reality: A Two-Way Mirror. International Universities Press. p. 193.ISBN978-0-8236-2228-3.
^John R. Schindler: "Yugoslavia’s First Ethnic Cleansing: The Expulsion of the Danubian Germans, 1944–1946", pp. 221–229, Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, eds.Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century EuropeISBN0-88033-995-0.
^abKoprivica-Oštrić, Stanislava (1978).Tito u Bjelovaru. Koordinacioni odbor za njegovanje revolucionarnih tradicija. p. 76.
^Andric, Gordana (4 December 2010)."The Blue Train".Balkan Insight. Retrieved15 July 2013.
^"Socialist Thought, and Practice".Socialist Thought and Practice. Vol. 11–12. p. 91.As regards the knowledge of languages, Tito replied that he spoke Yugoslav, German, Russian and partly English. It is obvious that he had a good knowledge of foreign languages. Comrade Tito had mastered the first rudiments of the German language already as an apprentice, and he perfected his knowledge later when working abroad; he had learnt Russian as a prisoner-of-war and in the course of his stay in Russia during the October Revolution
Banac, Ivo (1988).With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist splits in Yugoslav Communism. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.ISBN978-0-8014-2186-0.
Belaj, Marijana (2008). "'I'm not religious, but Tito is a God': Tito, Kumrovec, and the New Pilgrims". In Margry, Peter Jan (ed.).Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World: New Itineraries into the Sacred. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 71–94.ISBN978-90-485-0224-0.
Borneman, John (2004).Death of the Father: An Anthropology of End in Political Authority. Berghahn Books.ISBN978-1-57181-111-0.
Frankel, Benjamin (1992).The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and Other Important Figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World. Vol. 2. London, England: Gale Research.ISBN978-0-8103-8928-1.
Kocon, Ivan; Jeličić, Matej; Škunca, Ivan (1988).Stvaranje Titove Jugoslavije [The Creation of Tito's Yugoslavia] (in Serbo-Croatian). Opatija, Yugoslavia: Otokar Keršovani.ISBN978-86-385-0091-8.
Lees, Lorraine M. (2006).Keeping Tito Afloat: The United States, Yugoslavia, and the Cold War. Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN978-0-253-34656-8.
Nikolić, Kosta (2003). Drašković, Dragan; Ristić, Radomir (eds.).Kraljevo in October 1941. Kraljevo: National Museum Kraljevo, Historical Archive Kraljevo.
Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (2008).Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia. Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0231700504.(excerpt and text search)
Dimić, Ljubodrag (2003). "Tito and Krushchev 1953–1956: Coming together, reconciliation, disappointment".Journal of Central and East European Studies.5 (2):423–456.
Beloff, Nora (1986).Tito's Flawed Legacy: Yugoslavia and the West Since 1939. Westview Pr.ISBN978-0-8133-0322-2.online
Carter, April (1989).Marshal Tito: A Bibliography. Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-28087-0.
Cicic, Ana. "Yugoslavia Revisited: Contested Histories through Public Memories of President Tito." (2020).online
Cosovschi, Agustin. "Seeing and Imagining the Land of Tito: Oscar Waiss and the Geography of Socialist Yugoslavia."Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires 17.1 (2022).online
Foster, Samuel.Yugoslavia in the British imagination: Peace, war and peasants before Tito (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021)online. See alsoonline book review
Trošt, Tamara P. "The image of Josip Broz Tito in post-Yugoslavia: Between national and local memory." inRuler Personality Cults from Empires to Nation-States and Beyond (Routledge, 2020) pp. 143–162.online
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