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TheMaritime history of the United Kingdom involves events includingshipping,ports,navigation, andseamen, as well as marine sciences, exploration, trade, and maritime themes in the arts from the creation of the kingdom ofGreat Britain[1] as a united,sovereign state, on 1 May 1707 in accordance with theTreaty of Union, signed on 22 July 1706.[2] Until the advent of air transport and the creation of theChannel Tunnel, marine transport was the only way of reaching theBritish Isles. For this reason, maritime trade and naval power have always had great importance.
Prior to theActs of Union, 1707, the maritime history of the British Isles was largely dominated by that of England. (SeeMaritime history of England for more details.)
In the eighteenth century, Britain was a major exporter ofwool fabric and other manufactured goods.[3]
Lloyd's List was established in 1734 andLloyd's Register in 1764/5.The Marine Society was set up in 1756 with the aim of sending poor boys to sea.
Steam technology was first applied to boats in the 1770s but sailing ships continued to be developed. In 1794 an experimental steam powered ship called theKent was built which showed designers the way forward.Nathanial Symonds demonstrated a sinking boat in 1729.
Towards the end of the century, theNapoleonic Wars started withNapoleon, later crowned as French Emperor, andnaval battles continued into the 19th century.
In 1801 asteamship called theCharlotte Dundas ran trials on acanal nearGlasgow, towing barges. In 1815Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the steamshipÉlise. By the mid-century steamboats were a common sight on British rivers and canals. Regular steamship sailings across the Atlantic started in the 1830s.
Shipbuilders began usingiron instead of wood as the ships could be made larger and stronger and with more cargo space. Ships also began to be fitted withsteam engines andpaddle wheels but the latter was found to be unsuited to open sea use. From the 1840s screwpropellers replaced paddles. In the 1870s new more efficient engines were introduced so that sailing ships began to be phased out. From the 1880ssteel began to replace iron for the hulls.
Because of the space required for coal and the large crew requirements on steamships, sailing ships were favoured for long voyages and reached a design peak with theclippers used for transporting tea and wool. Steamships gradually replaced sailing ships for commercial shipping during the 19th century, particularly after more efficient engine designs were developed in the later part of the period.
TheBattle of Navarino in 1827 was the last to be fought by theRoyal Navy entirely with sailing ships. By the end of the century submarine design had progressed sufficiently to be useful, as had the design oftorpedoes.
At the start of the century 25% of the world's trade was through British ports, 18% of this being to North America.[citation needed] Trans-oceanic travel was important at the start of the century withtransatlantic liners competing for the "Blue Riband" for the fastest crossing. A significant event was the sinking of theTitanic in 1912. This led to theGlobal Maritime Distress Safety System and to theIceberg Patrol. The rise of air travel led to a decrease in ocean travel but then, towards the end of the century,cruise ships became important again.
During the 20th century new types of cargo ships appeared - thecontainer ship, theoil tanker and the gas container ship. Specialised ports for handling these were also developed.
Mostwarships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine in the mid part of the period. Steamships were superseded bydiesel-driven cargo ships in the second half of the century. Submarines were mainly powered by a combination of diesel and batteries until the advent ofnuclear marine propulsion in 1955.
There were two major wars against Germany and its allies that saw a massive expansion in naval fleets and the use of air power at sea, resulting in the construction ofaircraft carriers that became the main centre of sea power. Both wars saw massive destruction of the Britishmerchant fleet but new construction exceeded the rate of destruction. After World War II there was an initial drop in warship numbers but then the rise of theSoviet naval threat resulted in theCold War with the construction of new warships and submarines. The reduction of theSoviet threat at the end of the century was offset by threats from other sources andpiracy as well as sea-bornedrug trafficking.
Cod War, offshore oil, gas andwind farms. Exploitation ofwave power was started.
The start of the century saw the building ofsuperliners. The Royal Navy saw further reductions in its strength, though new larger aircraft carriers have been promised.
Under theActs of Union 1707 in 1707 theRoyal Scots Navy merged with the English navy and theBritish Royal Navy came into being. The early 18th century saw the Royal Navy with more ships than other navies. Although it suffered severe financial problems through the earlier part of this period, modern methods of financing government, and in particular the Navy, were developed, This financing enabled the Navy to become the most powerful force of the later 18th century withoutbankrupting the country. The Napoleonic Wars saw the Royal Navy reach a peak of efficiency, dominating the navies of all Britain's adversaries.
UnderWilliam III andMary II a hospital atGreenwich was founded to relieve the sufferings of British seamen.
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Between 1793 and 1815 the Royal Navy lost 344 vessels due to non-combat causes: 75 by foundering, 234 shipwrecked and 15 from accidental burnings or explosions. In the same period it lost 103,000 seamen: 84,440 by disease and accidents, 12,680 by shipwreck or foundering and 6,540 by enemy action.
From theBattle of Trafalgar in 1805 until the outbreak of the European War in 1914, Britain had an almost uncontested power over the world's oceans, and it was said that "Britannia ruled the waves". During theNapoleonic Wars, there was increasing tension at sea between Britain and the United States, as American traders took advantage of their country's neutrality to trade with the French-controlled parts of Europe as well as with the British Isles. The Anglo-AmericanWar of 1812 was characterised by single-ship actions and the disruption of merchant shipping.
The start of the 20th century saw structural changes in the Navy brought about by theFirst Sea LordJackie Fisher who retired, scrapped or placed in reserve many of the older vessels, making new funds and manpower available for newer ships. He saw the development ofHMS Dreadnought, the first all-big-gun ship and one of the most influential ships in naval history. This ship rendered all otherbattleships then existing obsolete, and indeed lent her name to an entire class of battleships, thedreadnoughts. AdmiralPercy Scott introduced new programmes such a gunnery training and centralfire control which greatly increased the effectiveness in battle of the Navy's ships.
During theFirst World War the Royal Navy played a vital role in escortingconvoys of food, arms and raw materials to Britain. It defeated theGerman campaign ofunrestricted submarine warfare and prevented the breakout of the GermanHigh Seas Fleet. As well as tasks in the Atlantic it also carried out operations in the Baltic, Mediterranean andBlack Sea.
In the inter-war years the Royal Navy was stripped of much of its power. TheWashington Naval Treaty of 1922, together with the deplorable financial conditions during the immediate post-war period and theGreat Depression, forced the Admiralty to scrap somecapital ships and to cancel plans for new construction. TheLondon Naval Treaty of 1930 deferred new capital ship construction until 1937 and reiterated construction limits oncruisers,destroyers and submarines. As international tensions increased in the mid-thirties, theSecond London Naval Treaty of 1936 failed to halt the development of a navalarms race and by 1938 treaty limits were effectively ignored. The re-armament of the Royal Navy was well under way by this point; the Royal Navy had constructed theKing George V class of 1936 and several aircraft carriers includingArk Royal. In addition to new construction, several existing battleships, battlecruisers and heavy cruisers were re-constructed and newanti-aircraft weaponry reinforced. However, around this time theImperial Japanese Navy and theUnited States Navy began to surpass the Royal Navy in power.
After the Second World War, the decline of the British Empire and economic hardships in Britain forced reduction in size and capability of the Royal Navy. The increasingly powerful United States Navy took on the former role of the Royal Navy as a means of keeping peace around the world. However, the threat of the Soviet Union created a new role for the Navy withinNATO.
The 1960s saw the peak of the Royal Navy's capabilities in the post-war era. The fleet carriersArk Royal,Eagle, the rebuiltVictorious,Hermes andCentaur gave the Royal Navy the most powerful fleet outside the United States. The navy also had a large fleet offrigates and destroyers. New, more modern units like theCounty-class destroyers andLeander class-frigates began to enter service in the 1960s. At this time the Royal Navy received its firstnuclear weapons and was to become responsible for the maintenance of the UK's nuclear deterrent.
However, aLabour government came into power and was determined to cut defence expenditure. After this the navy began to fall in size and by 1979 the last fleet carrier was scrapped. The navy was forced to make do with three much smallerInvincible-class aircraft carriers withSea Harrier aircraft. The fleet was now centred around anti-submarine warfare in the North Atlantic. Further Defence Reviews have further cut the Royal Navy.
Although the Royal Navy has significantly reduced in size since the 1960s, reflecting the reduced requirements of the state, this does not take into account the increase in technological capability of the Navy's ships. The navy is responsible for the British strategicnuclear deterrent. It concentrates onanti-submarine warfare andmine countermeasures as part of NATO.
TheNavy Board was responsible for providing the ships and the men to man them, includingWarrant Officers. TheImpress Service recruited volunteers but also took many against their will. After 1740 the Admiralty gained control over the Navy Board.
In 1964 the Admiralty and the Navy Board became part of the integratedMinistry of Defence. This included theFleet Air Arm.
During theAmerican Revolution, a primitive submarine tried and failed to sink a British warship,HMS Eagle theflagship of the blockers, in New York City harbour in 1776.John Paul Jones attacked British shipping in the Irish Sea and also the towns ofWhitehaven andKirkcudbright. In the Anglo-American War of 1812, an unsuccessful submarine attack was made on a British warship stationed inNew London harbour.
In 1793 France declared war on Britain. The next 12 years saw many battles such as that atCape St. Vincent and at theBattle of the Nile, and short-lived truces such as theTreaty of Amiens. The height of the Royal Navy's achievements came on 21 October 1805 at theBattle of Trafalgar, where a numerically smaller but more experienced British fleet under the command ofLord Horatio Nelson decisively defeated a combined French and Spanish fleet.
At the start of the war theGerman Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe. Some of them were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the detachedlight cruiserEmden, part of theEast Asia squadron stationed atQingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the East Asiasquadron - consisting of the armoured cruisersScharnhorst andGneisenau, light cruisersNürnberg,Leipzig, andDresden and twotransport ships - did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it was defeated by the British at theBattle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with onlyDresden escaping destruction.
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TheBattle of Jutland was the major sea battle of the First World War. Although the BritishGrand Fleet suffered greater losses than the GermanHigh Seas Fleet, the latter withdrew to port and the British retained control of the North Sea.
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities the British initiated a Naval Blockade of Germany, preventing supplies from reaching its ports. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, though thisblockade violated generally acceptedinternational law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. A blockade of stationed ships within a three-mile (5 km) radius was considered legitimate, however Britain minedinternational waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.
GermanU-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain during theFirst Battle of the Atlantic. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest and Germany modified its rules of engagement. After the infamous sinking of the passenger shipRMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. Britain armed its merchant ships. Finally in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangleAlliedsea lanes before the US could transport a large army overseas.
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917 when merchant ships travelled in convoys escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets. The accompanying destroyers might sink a submerged submarine withdepth charges. The losses to submarine attacks were reduced significantly, but the convoys system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive programme to build new freighters. Troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The First World War also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, withFurious launchingSopwith Camels in a successful raid againstZeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918.
In the North Atlantic,German U-boats again attempted to cut supply lines to Britain by sinking merchant ships. In the first four months of the war they sank more than 110 vessels. In addition to supply ships, the U-boats occasionally attacked British and Canadian warships. One U-boat sank the British carrierCourageous while another managed to sink the battleshipRoyal Oak at her home anchorage ofScapa Flow.
In the early stages of the war the Royal Navy placed much faith in ASDIC (an early form of activesonar) to detect submerged U-boats but the Germans countered this by the use of the "wolfpack" which attacked on the surface at night. To form this pack, the U-boats communicated to their base by radio, to coordinate the action of several U-boats. The British eventually broke theGerman Naval code, which allowed this tactic to be defeated. The Germans then switched to attacking shipping off the American coast.
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The British sank theDeutschland-class cruiserAdmiral Graf Spee in December 1939 and the battleshipBismarck in 1941. However the threat caused by theTirpitz was only countered later after many attacks. The Royal Navy suffered significant losses in the early stages of the war including the battlecruisersHood, which had been sunk byBismarck, andRepulse and the battleshipPrince of Wales, both of which weresunk by Japanese bombers in late 1941.
The Royal Navy provided critical cover for the British and French troops during theDunkirk evacuation and rescued the bulk of the troops, the remainder being evacuated by a fleet of small ships. Later the Navy provided cover for theDieppe Raid catastrophe, that saw 3,623 of the 6,086 men who made it ashore killed, wounded, or captured.
In the summer of 1941, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of Britain. Although the Soviets had tremendous reserves in manpower, they had lost much of their equipment and manufacturing base in the first few weeks following the German invasion. The Allies attempted to remedy this by sendingArctic convoys, which travelled from Britain and later the United States to the northern ports of the Soviet Union,Arkhangelsk (Archangel) andMurmansk. The treacherous route around theNorth Cape of Norway was the site of many battles as the Germans continually tried to disrupt the convoys using U-boats, bombers and surface ships.
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Malta was an important base for attacking theAxis supply lines to North Africa. Submarines, aircraft and surface ships were used from Maltese bases. In 1941 "Force K" was based in Malta which caused theItalians to suspend their convoys but the Germans insisted that they be resumed. Force K ran into aminefield and warships were also lost by attacks by U-boats andhuman torpedoes. Axis aircraft attackedAllied supply convoys to Malta and the situation became desperate. Eventually in 1942 "Operation Pedestal", 14 ships with a large escort was sent. However, only 5 ships got through and many escorts were lost. The renewed attacks by the submarine force prevented full use of the Axis held port ofTobruk and eventually to victory in North Africa.Gibraltar was also an important naval base, as wasAlexandria.
In late 1941Winston Churchill tried to preventJapanese aggression against British territories in the Far East by sending a naval deterrent called "Force Z". The Royal Navy could only spare one new battleship, HMSPrince of Wales, an oldbattlecruiser HMSRepulse and the carrierHMS Indomitable. The latter hit an uncharted rock and was put out of action but Churchill insisted on the other two ships being sent. They arrived atSingapore on 2 December 1941. A day after theattack on Pearl Harbor, the ships with escorting destroyers sailed to attack Japanese transports. They were spotted byreconnaissance aircraft and eventually sunk by torpedoes from planes.
The turning point in the "Second Battle of the Atlantic" was in early 1943 as the Allies refined their naval tactics, making effective use of new technology to counter the U-boats. The Allies produced ships faster than they were sunk and lost fewer ships by re-adopting the convoy system. Improved anti-submarine warfare meant that the life expectancy of a typical U-boat crew would be measured in months. The vastly improved Type 21 U-boat appeared at the end of the war but was too late to affect the outcome. In December 1943 the last major sea battle between the Royal Navy and theKriegsmarine (War navy) took place. At the "Battle of North Cape" Germany's battleshipScharnhorst was sunk byHMS Duke of York,HMS Belfast and several destroyers.
For theD-Day landings in 1944 the Royal Navy provided most of the warships and three-quarters of the landing craft. After theGerman surrender, a force was sent to the Pacific Ocean to attack the Japanese.
Since the late 1950s, the United Kingdom became engaged in a protracted dispute withIceland over fishing rights in North Atlantic waters. The Royal Navy, along with tugs from theMAFF and British civilian trawlers, was involved in three major confrontations with theIcelandic Coast Guard from 1958 to 1976. These largely bloodless clashes became known as theCod Wars, and consisted in a series of close encounters and rammings between Icelandic gunboats and British frigates and tugs. A total of 15 Royal Navy warships and five Icelandic gunboats were damaged in different degrees during the third conflict only.[4] The dispute ended in June 1976 with the recognition by Britain of Iceland's exclusive 200 nautical miles fishery zone.
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TheFalklands War was fought in 1982 betweenArgentina and Britain over the disputedFalkland Islands,South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, but launched a navaltask force to engage theArgentine Navy andAir Force, and to retake the islands byamphibious assault. AWestland Lynx HAS.2. and threeWestland Wasp HAS.1 from the Royal Navy disabled the Argentine submarine ARASanta Fe withAS-12air-to-surface missiles in South Georgia and nuclear submarineHMS Conqueror sank the light cruiser ARAGeneral Belgrano, but lost the destroyersHMS Sheffield andHMS Coventry and the frigatesHMS Ardent andHMS Antelope due to air attack. The Argentine airstrikes also sank the freighterAtlantic Conveyor, thelogistic shipRFASir Galahad and anLCU landing craft fromHMS Fearless. Another Argentine submarine, the ARASan Luis, launched a number of unsuccessful attacks on the British task force,[5] which in turn expended 50Mk 46 anti-submarine torpedoes during the conflict.[6] The Argentine transportARAIsla de los Estados was sunk byHMS Alacrity, while the coaster ARAMonsunen managed to slip away after a hot pursuit by the frigatesHMS Yarmouth andHMS Broadsword. The assault force was landed atSan Carlos Water, where Royal Navy warships and aircraft shot down 22 Argentine fighter-bombers. The British eventually prevailed and the islands returned to British control.
The Royal Navy took part in the 1990Gulf War, theKosovo War, theAfghanistan War and the 2003Iraq War. In August 2005 the Royal Navy rescued seven Russians stranded in a submarine off theKamchatka Peninsula. Using itsScorpio 45 remote-controlled mini-sub, the Russian submarine was freed from the fishing nets and cables that had held the submarine for three days.
Charles Hardy was a British naval officer and colonial governor. He was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the British colony ofNewfoundland in 1744. In 1758 he andJames Wolfe attacked French posts around the mouth of theSaint Lawrence River and destroyed all of the French fishing stations along the northern shores of what is nowNew Brunswick and along theGaspé Peninsula.
Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel was aBritish admiral who held sea command during theSeven Years' War and during theAmerican Revolutionary War. In the final years of the latter conflict he served as First Lord of the Admiralty. During the Seven Years' War he had seen constant service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of France in 1756, was dispatched on a cruise to reduce the French settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758 and his shipNeptune (1683) was the first to get into action at theBattle of Quiberon Bay in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of thecourt-martial that had condemned AdmiralJohn Byng, but was active among others who endeavoured to secure a pardon for him. However, neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out. When Spain joined France in 1762 he was sent as second in command with Sir George Peacock in the expedition which tookHavana. His health suffered from the fever which carried off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the £25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the unpleasant position of a younger son of a family ruined by the extravagance of his father.
Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke was a naval officer of the Royal Navy. During theWar of the Austrian Succession he was promoted toRear admiral. In the Seven Years' War Hawke replaced Admiral John Byng as commander in the Mediterranean.
Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe was a British admiral. During the rebellion in North America, Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists. He had in prior years sought the acquaintance ofBenjamin Franklin, who was a friend of Howe's sister, a popular lady in London society. During his career Howe displayed an uncommon tactical originality. His performance was unexcelled even by Nelson who, like Howe's other successors, was served by more highly trained squadrons and benefitted from Howe's concepts.
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson was a British admiral who was famous for his participation in the sea battles of the Napoleonic Wars, most notably at theBattle of Trafalgar a decisive British victory where he lost his life. He was born in 1758 inNorfolk and in 1771 joinedRaisonnable (1768). By the time he was 20 he had been to theArctic, theIndies and the Caribbean. He was appointedLieutenant in 1777,Post-Captain in 1779 andCommodore in 1796. He took part in the campaign inCorsica in 1794 where he lost his right eye. In 1797 he was at the battle ofCape St. Vincent at which he was promoted Rear Admiral of the Blue. That year he lost his right arm after the raid onSanta Cruz,Tenerife and was knighted. In 1798 he fought the French fleet at theBattle of the Nile inAbu Qir Bay,Egypt and was given the title "Baron of the Nile".
Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name "The Nelson Touch". His actions during these battles meant that before and after his death he was revered like few military figures have been throughout British history. Alexander Davidson was a contemporary and close friend of Nelson and is responsible for several acts that glorified Nelson's public image. These included the creation of a medal commemorating the victory at the Battle of Trafalgar and the creation of theNelson Memorial at his estate inSwarland,Northumberland. As a close friend of the Admiral he acted as an intermediary when Nelson's marriage to his wifeFrances Nelson fell apart due in large part to his affair withEmma Hamilton.
In 1778Sir Hyde Parker was engaged in theSavannah expedition, and in the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile Cuban coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves and in the end were brought off safely. Parker was with his father,Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet at theDogger Bank and with Richard Howe in the two actions in theStrait of Gibraltar. In 1793, having just become Rear Admiral, he served underSir Samuel Hood atToulon and in Corsica. Two years later, now aVice Admiral, he took part underWilliam Hotham in the indecisive fleet actions in 1795. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command atJamaica and ably conducted the operations in the West Indies.
Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, was a British naval officer who fought during the American War of Independence, the French Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars. Pellegrew is remembered as an officer and gentleman, earning his land and titles through courage, leadership and skill - serving as a paradigm of the versatility and determination of naval officers during the Napoleonic Wars.
James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez was an admiral of the Royal Navy, notable for his victory at theBattle of Algeciras Bay. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of Rear Admiral of the Blue, was created a baronet and received the command of a small squadron which was destined to watch the movements of the Spanish fleet atCádiz. Between 6 and 12 July he performed a brilliant piece of service, in which after a first repulse atAlgeciras he routed a much superior combined force of French and Spanish ships at the Battle of Algeciras Bay. For his services Saumarez received theOrder of the Bath and theFreedom of the City of London.
William Dampier made voyages fromWeymouth to Newfoundland,Java, Jamaica andHonduras. From his experiences he wrote a bookA New Voyage Around The World that was much admired and resulted in his command of the first voyage of exploration organised by the Admiralty. He reached Australia but found no wealth so it was not a success. Dampier later took up privateering and rescuedAlexander Selkirk, which was the basis forRobinson Crusoe.
James Cook was born inYorkshire in 1728. Having worked in a shop, he decided that a life at sea was what he wanted and he became apprenticed to a firm ofWhitby coal shippers. He then joined the navy as a seaman and worked his way up to command. TheRoyal Society wanted to observe thetransit of Venus due in June 1769 and to find the supposed southern continent. They persuaded the Admiralty to provide a ship and James Cook, a navigator who had prepared charts of the St Lawrence river. For the voyage Cook chose theHM BarkEndeavour which was a Whitbycollier. It was adapted in theRoyal Navy Dockyard atDeptford, and scientific instruments for observing the transit were loaded. Accompanying Cook were the astronomer Dr Green, a botanistJoseph Banks and two artists. TheEndeavour sailed aroundCape Horn toTahiti, then to New Zealand and finally to Australia. After a year at home, Cook took two colliers,Resolution andAdventure, to theAntarctic and then toTahiti, testing the new timekeeper ofJohn Harrison. He made a third voyage, to try to find theNorthwest Passage, withResolution andHMS Discovery. After encountering ice he turned back toHawaii. There he was treated as a god but on leaving was forced to return. When Cook tried to take the king hostage, because of the theft of a ship's boat, he was killed on 14 February 1779.
George Vancouver was born inKing's Lynn in 1757. He became a captain in the Royal Navy and carried out surveys of the west coast of America, using a different ship also called theDiscovery (1789), of Australia and New Zealand. Both the city ofVancouver andVancouver Island are named after him. He also negotiated agreements with the king of Hawaii but died at the age of 40.
George Anson, 1st Baron Anson took a squadron of British shipsaround Cape Horn in 1740–4 to harass the Spanish. He captured several ships, raided thePhilippines and visitedCanton (now Guangzhou). He returned with much gold and silver to great acclaim.
John Franklin was an officer in the Royal Navy and an Arctic explorer. He was born in 1786 and joined the navy at the age of 16. He sailed onMatthew Flinders voyages around Australia and took part in the Battle of Trafalgar, but is best remembered for his four Arctic voyages. He made maps of over 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of the coast ofnorthern Canada. On his final voyage in 1845 he had two ships theErebus and theTerror. He was seen offBaffin Island but then disappeared. Various expeditions were mounted to find him and his crew. One expedition metInuit who said that the ships had been crushed in the ice. Messages from the explorers were found but all later died. Franklin had died in 1847 and the remainder had tried to travel south.Robert McClure completed the route in 1850.
James Clark Ross surveyedVictoria Land in Antarctica in 1842. TheRoss Sea andRoss Island are named after him as is a ship of theBritish Antarctic Survey.
Robert Falcon Scott surveyed the Great Ice Barrier in the Antarctic in 1901–4 inRRSDiscovery. He died in 1910 on the journey back from theSouth Pole.
Ernest Shackleton led an expedition to try to cross Antarctica in 1914. His ship became crushed in the ice but he led 28 men to safety onElephant Island. To get help Shackleton and six men crossed 800 nautical miles (1,500 km) of sea in an open boat to South Georgia and then crossed the mountains toGrytviken. He returned to rescue all his men from Elephant Island. He died on South Georgia in 1922.
At the time of the creation of the United Kingdom, England had important royal dockyards atHarwich,Sheerness andPlymouth. A mechanisedblock mill was set up atPortsmouth in 1806 that was cheaper and faster than producing them by hand. As shipbuilding centres in thenorth east of England expanded, those inEast Anglia declined.
Ship sizes increased in the 19th century due to the change from wood to iron and then steel. Yards in the north east and in Scotland became dominant. British yards produced the majority of the world's shipping at the end of the century, mostlytramp steamers.
In 1913 Britain had 61% of the world market, with 40% in 1920 but this had declined to 0.7% in 1997. Modernisation of the shipyards took place in the 1960s allowing construction of supertankers. The British yards werenationalised as part of theAircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act 1977 and renamed "British Shipbuilders" but wereprivatised again in the 1980s.Rosyth Dockyard was started in 1909 whileHMNB Clyde (Faslane) submarine base was created in the 1960s. American nuclear submarines were based inHoly Loch but have since left.
TheCutty Sark was aclipper ship built in 1869 inDumbarton, Scotland, to carry 600 tons of cargo. She raced theThermopylae and other clippers in thetea trade from China and later in thewool trade from Australia. She was capable of sailing at over 17 knots (31 km/h). Built as afull-rigged ship, she spent her final trading years as abarquentine. She was dismasted in 1916 but restored in 1922 then used as a training ship.Cutty Sark was taken over by a preservation society in 1952 and moved toGreenwich. In 2007 she was damaged by fire during restoration work but is now repaired and offers visitors tours as well as a souvenir shop and a coffee shop.
HM BarkEndeavour was built in 1768 as acollier atWhitby. She was a full-rigged ship and sturdily built with a large hold.Endeavour's flat-bottomed hull was well suited for sailing in shallow water and was designed to be beached. She was acquired by the Royal Navy, and after a major refit at Deptford she was used by James Cook on his first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. She ran aground on "Endeavour Reef" in theGreat Barrier Reef but was refloated and repaired. On her return to Britain,Endeavour was used as a store ship and then sold out of the navy and used as a merchant ship. Her later fate is uncertain.
Areplica ofEndeavour was built inFremantle from the original drawings, starting in 1988. This was completed in 1994 andEndeavour undertook a voyage to Whitby where she stayed from 1997 to 2003. She is now at theAustralian National Maritime Museum in Sydney.
TheSS Great Britain wasIsambard Kingdom Brunel's second ship design, after a wooden paddle steamer called theSS Great Western. She was the first steamship to make regular crossings of the Atlantic. This was the first large iron steamship and the first to use a screw propeller. After a long career she was abandoned in the Falkland Islands but was brought back to thedrydock in Bristol in which she was built. There she has been restored.
TheSS Great Eastern was launched in 1858 and was six times bigger than any ship before. She was the third ship designed by Brunel. TheGreat Eastern had six masts as well as coal fired engines driving paddle wheels. It was designed to carry enough coal to travel to Australia and return, and was intended to carry 4,000 passengers (or 10,000 soldiers). Work started on the ship in 1854 but there were many problems in building and launching the ship. After fitting out at Deptford she undertook trials in September 1859 but the heater attached to the paddle engine boilers exploded. As the ship had been fitted with watertightbulkheads she survived and was repaired. Because of the opening of theSuez Canal, she was not used on the Australian route as envisaged but on the Atlantic crossings. Passengers did not like the rolling in storms and she was sold to a cable laying company after only six years. TheGreat Eastern was used to lay the firsttransatlantic telegraph cable and many others subsequently. She was broken up in 1888.
TheTitanic and her sister shipsOlympic andBritannic were built theWhite Star Line to outdo theMauretania andLusitania which belonged to the rivalCunard Line.Titanic was 269 m long and weight 45,000 tons. She was described as a luxury hotel at sea and as "unsinkable". She was fitted with a double bottom and 16 watertight compartments so that even if two were flooded she would not sink.Titanic departed fromSouthampton on 10 April 1912 on her maiden voyage to America. She called atCherbourg and thenQueenstown (now Cobh) before heading for New York City. Despite warnings oficebergs, she continued at 24 knots (44 km/h) on the night of 14 April. About midnight she hit an iceberg and five compartments started to flood. Two hours afterwards she sank. There were only enough lifeboats for half the passengers and about 1,500 people perished. In 1985 her wreck was identified by sonar 4,000 m down and explored using aremotely operated vehicle (ROV). Many objects from the wreck have been recovered.
RMS Queen Mary was built in 1936 byJohn Brown & Company inClydebank, Scotland for what is now the Cunard Line. She made runs across the Atlantic between Southampton, Cherbourg and New York City in partnership withQueen Elizabeth. TheQueen Mary was used as a troop ship in the Second World War, carrying 16,082 people on one voyage. After the war she resumed Atlantic runs but these became loss making. She was withdrawn from service in 1967 and is now inLong Beach California as a hotel and tourist attraction.
HMYBrittania was the name given to twoyachts owned by the British royal family. The last one of these was built in 1953 and served the British royal family for nearly 43 years. Britannia is 5862 tons with an overall length of 412 feet (126 m). During her time in service she steamed 71 million miles. She has been preserved in port atLeith in Scotland. She was designed to be used as ahospital ship in time of war but did not undertake this role.
HMS Victory was built between 1759 and 1765 atChatham Dockyard with over 100 guns. She fought atUshant in 1778 and 1781, and at Cape St. Vincent in 1796.Victory was reconstructed in 1798 with more guns and then fought at theBattle of Trafalgar in 1805. Later she sailed on many naval expeditions. However, in 1889,Victory became home to the "Naval School of Telegraphy". She got into a poor state and was restored 1922–8.Victory is now in drydock atHMNB Portsmouth (Portsmouth Historic Dockyard), where she received some damage in the Second World War.Victory is still the flagship of theSecond Sea Lord.
HMS Warrior was built in 1860 in response to the French shipLa Gloire. She was the first iron-hulledironclad, with three skins of iron,teak and iron.Warrior was broadside firing with 9 ton muzzle loading guns. She was described byNapoleon III as a "black snake amongst the rabbits". Her construction started a revolution in shipbuilding which meant that she was soon outclassed. She ended her days as an oil jetty atPembroke Dock but was restored and has been on display since the 1980s at HMNB Portsmouth.
HMS Belfast is aTown-class cruiser launched in 1938. At the start of the Second World War she was part of the force mounting a blockade on Germany. After sustaining mine damage she was reconstructed and became the heaviest cruiser of the class at 11553 tons.Belfast fought in theBattle of North Cape against theScharnhorst and took part in operations againstTirpitz. She was part of the bombardment force during the D-Day landings and later served in theFar East.Belfast also took part in theKorean War.Belfast was then modernised and went to the Far East again. She was paid off from theRoyal Navy in 1963 and is now a museum ship on theRiver Thames at London.
Between 1735 and 1760John Harrison developed four types ofmarine chronometers for use at sea to allow accurate determination oflongitude.
Thegyrocompass was introduced in 1908.
The first offshore lighthouse was that built on theEddystone Rocks in 1699. This was washed away in a great storm but a replacement was built. As its foundations were unsatisfactory it was taken down and rebuilt onPlymouth Hoe. The third lighthouse on the reef still stands. The firstlightship was positioned at theNore in 1732.Foghorns were incorporated in the 19th century to provide warning in low visibility. In the late 19th and early 20th century underwater bells were used as warning devices.
Trinity House of Deptford was founded in 1514 to look after navigation marks in theThames Estuary. Similar organisations were founded at other places later. These were subsequently amalgamated and its authority was increased in 1836. Trinity House now looks after most of the marks in England and Wales, with theNorthern Lighthouse Board in Scotland and theCommissioners of Irish Lights for the whole of Ireland.
Ship'sradar started to be used during WWII, though it was primarily for military use. After 1945 when it came off the secret list, it was used commercially by the merchant fleets. Radar is also used on land for monitoring the position of shipping, for example in theStrait of Dover which is the busiest area of sea in the world.
TheDecca Navigator System was ahyperbolic radio navigation system for commercial use that was installed in the decades after WWII, when it had come off the secret list. It had been used to sweep and mark the channels for theD-Day invasion Operation Overlord. After the end ofWorld War II the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd. was formed to enable commercial use, and the system expanded rapidly, particularly in areas ofBritish influence. It gave unparalleled accuracy until the advent of GPS satellite-based systems. At its peak it was deployed in many of the world's major shipping areas. More than 15,000 receiving sets were in use aboard ships in 1970. There were 4 transmitting "chains" around England, 1 in Ireland and 2 in Scotland, 12 in Scandinavia and a number elsewhere in the world. It was only phased out after the USA GPS signals became available for public use in 2001.
Electronicecho sounding was introduced in the 1930s to determine water depth and was useful in shallow waters.
In the 19th century it was sometimes the practice to send heavily insured "coffin ships" to sea that were old, poorly maintained and overloaded. In 1868Samuel Plimsoll became concerned by the scandal and publishedOur Seamen which revealed the situation. Aload line (which became known as the Plimsoll Line) was required by theMerchant Shipping Act of 1876 but it was not until 1890 that theBoard of Trade became responsible for determining where it should be.
There were some locally organisedlifeboats in the 18th century, the first being in 1789 as a result of a tragic accident at the entrance to theRiver Tyne. TheRoyal National Lifeboat Institution was founded by SirWilliam Hillary in 1824 and is financed voluntarily. It maintains many lifeboats and lifeboat stations around the coast of Britain, the stations being run by paid engineers but mostly manned by local volunteers. An exception is the station atSpurn Head which is isolated so it is manned fully by paid crew. The boats were rowed with oars until the 1890s when steam-driven boats began to be introduced. Nowadays there are large diesel-driven offshore boats and small fast inshore boats. In some placeshovercraft are used for rescues. The RNLI boats cooperate with the other rescue services, particularly the rescue helicopters.
TheMaritime and Coastguard Agency was formed in 1998 to look after safety in British waters. It coordinates the search rescue services and determines safety standards. It incorporated the Coastguard Agency, that had been formed fromHer Majesty's Coastguard, and the Marine Safety Agency.
Around the coast of Britain there are hundreds of ports and harbours, varying from the tiny (such asPorlock Weir) to the large (such as thePort of Felixstowe). Ships were also simply drawn up on beaches. Over the centuries the relative importance of each port and harbour has changed due to such factors as silting and trade alterations. In later periods deep water access has been a major factor in determining a port's success.
In the 18th century there were major harbour improvements withdredging of channels and construction ofpiers.Wet docks were built at London,Liverpool, Hull and Bristol.
London was still the largest port in the 19th century when new docks were built.Cardiff became a major coal exporting port after arailway link was built, as did otherSouth Wales ports. The railways were responsible for developing new ports such asNewhaven asferry terminals and theManchester Ship Canal enabled Manchester to become a significant port though far inland.
When oil replaced coal after the First World War, coal ports like Cardiff declined. London, Southampton,Manchester, Liverpool, and Glasgow increased in trade during the inter-war years, and ferry ports such asHarwich and Dover grew. Oil terminals were built from the 1920s and the larger ships required new docks at existing ports. After the Second World War new cargo handling methods were introduced, such aspallets (1950),containerisation (1960s) androll-on/roll-off ships. Dockers at some ports resisted this change so leading to the development of new facilities at ports such asFelixstowe andTilbury.
Older port facilities became redundant and were redeveloped, such asCanary Wharf in London. In 1977 the major ports of Britain were London, Tees andHartlepool, Grimsby andImmingham, Forth, andMilford Haven. Many of the small ports were redeveloped asmarinas, such asWatchet.
The Navigation Ordinance of 1651 cut out Dutch shippers from English trade, which led to war. In the 17th century trade expanded with imports of fish and sugar. Exports were of corn and manufactured goods. TheRoyal African Company had a monopoly of the African trade until 1712 but there was much privateering. Later a major part of this trade was in the "Triangular trade" which involved taking goods from Britain to West Africa,slaves from Africa to the West Indies and America, then sugar to Britain. The main ports involved were London, Bristol and Liverpool but there were many others, with a total of 11,615 sailings with 3.4 million slaves between 1662 and 1807.William Wilberforce and his supporters got theslave trade abolished in 1808 and subsequently the Royal Navy tried to suppress it.
In 1600 Queen Elizabeth had given theHonourable East India Company the right to trade east of theCape of Good Hope. By 1804 the company's fleet from India was said to be worth £6M. TheVirginia Company failed in 1624. TheSouth Sea Company had been set up to trade in the Pacific but became involved in domestic politics. TheLevant Company was set up to trade with Turkey.
TheIndustrial Revolution caused a large increase in shipping movements. Raw materials were imported and manufactured goods were exported. In addition there was a need for coal. In the 19th century Britain built up the largest merchant fleet in the world. Around half the ocean-going tonnage was under theRed Ensign.
Examinations for masters and mates of large merchant ships were introduced in 1845 for foreign-going ships and in 1854 for coastal ones. Engineers tickets were required after 1862. Logs were required to be kept after 1850.
In the First World War a fifth of Britain's pre-war merchant shipping had been sunk by 1917, including 1349 ships in August of that year. Most deep water ships were sunk by torpedoes while most coastal ones hit mines. The fleets of neutral countries had expanded and in the 1920s there was a slump in shipping. Development of refrigerated ships allowed the importation of lamb and other meats from places such as New Zealand. A large number of merchant ships were sunk in the Second World War, but Britain's fleet had expanded by the end due to new construction. In the 1950s "flags of Convenience" were taking an increasing share of world trade and theEastern Bloc's shipping was expanding to earn foreign currency.
Excluding tankers and the USWar Reserve, Britain still had the world's largest merchant fleet in 1957. However, since then there has been a sharp decline, partly because of "re-flagging" to cut costs. Britain, now the world's fifth largest trading nation, exports 26% of itsgross domestic product, with 95% of this trade going by sea.
The first paddle steamer was used in 1793 and by 1821 there were services between Leith and London. The first British steamer to cross the Atlantic was theSirius in 1838, closely followed by theGreat Western. ThePeninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company was originally set up to take passengers toGibraltar and this was extended toIndia, the company eventually becoming "P&O". The "White Star Line" originally concentrated on the emigrant trade but had fast liners after 1871. During wartime the liners were used as troop ships. Southampton became the main passenger port because of its deep harbour with four tides.
Some 20,000 people emigrated from Britain to North America in the 20 years after the Mayflower's voyage. After the loss of theAmerican Colonies, Britain used Australia as apenal colony. The First Fleet in 1787 consisted of 1,200 people including 780 convicts. After the Second World War emigrants travelled by sea to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
Ferries operate across the English Channel, the Irish Sea, to theIsle of Man, to theIsle of Wight, the Isles of Scilly and to many Scottish islands. Ships have probably sailed these routes since prehistoric times. However, regular ferry services (apart fromMersey Ferry which started in 1200s) only started in the 18th century. On the Isle of Man route, sailing ships were used until 1830 but steamships proved faster and more reliable. The ferry trade expanded with the advent of roll-on/roll-off ship designs. The ferries across the English Channel were badly affected by the opening of theChannel Tunnel in 1994.
Cruise boats became popular in the 19th century. They operated from beaches in Dorset and Devon, and from Liverpool to North Wales. They also operated in theRiver Clyde, Thames andBristol Channel. A paddle steamer, theWaverley built in 1946, is still running, making trips for example toLundy.
Customsduties are payable on specified goods imported or exported. The range of goods on which there are charges has varied over time. Customs men were put into the various ports and they tried to keep watch over the adjoining coasts. These boards were combined as theBoard of Customs and Excise (laterHer Majesty's Customs and Excise, which was formed in 1909, and became part ofHer Majesty's Revenue and Customs in 2005.
In the 18th and 19th centuries there was extensivesmuggling by sea from the continent to Britain because of the high duty on luxury goods. The later was to finance the wars with France and the United States. Silks, spirits and tobacco came from France while gin came from the Netherlands. Revenue cutters were used to try and intercept the smugglers but with little success. After the Napoleonic Wars there was surplus manpower that was used to try and suppress smuggling. In certain areas (such as in Kent and Cornwall) smuggling was for many communities more economically significant than legal activities such as farming or fishing.
In the 19th and early 20th centuriesherring fishing was a major activity in Britain. Herring fishing stopped in England and Wales during the 1960s but continued in Scotland until 1977/8. In 1937 the herring catch at Yarmouth dropped dramatically, then that atLowestoft declined.
Trawling has also been a major activity, with the use ofradio navigation aids and echo sounders making life easier now. Fishing in waters offIceland became important, which led to three "Cod Wars" from the 1950s to the 1970s. British boats were excluded from Icelandic waters in 1976. In 1977 a 200-mile (320 km) fishing limit was set up by theEuropean Economic Community, and British waters were opened to other Community members. This led to overfishing. Landings decreased 28% between 1967 and 1997, with fishing now mainly off Scotland.
Other sorts of fishing also take place on a commercial basis such as forcrab,lobster,shellfish andmackerel.Sport fishing is popular from coasts and boats, including forshark off south west England.
In the past local conditions led to the development of a wide range of types offishing boats. The bawley and thesmack were used in the Thames Estuary and offEast Anglia, whiletrawlers anddrifters were used on the east coast. In 1870 paddle tugs were being used to tow luggers and smacks to sea. Steam trawlers were introduced in 1881, mainly at Grimsby and Hull. The steam drifter was not used in the herring fishery until 1897. In 1890 it was estimated that there were 20,000 men on the North Sea. The first trawlers fished over the side but in 1961 the first stern trawler was used at Lowestoft for fishing inArctic waters. By 1981 only 27 of 130 deep sea trawlers were still going to sea. Many were converted tooil rig safety vessels. However the "inshore" boats landed a greater weight of fish even in 1973.
Herring fishing started in theMoray Firth in 1819. The peak of the fishing atAberdeen was in 1937 with 277 steam trawlers, though the first diesel drifter was introduced in 1926.
The first British tanker was launched in 1886 and could carry 1,950 tons of oil. By 1961 the typical tanker was around 80,000 tons which grew to over 100,000 tons by 1967 and to over 250,000 tons by 1973. By 1965BP had 170 tankers.
Thegas fields in the North Sea have been in production since the 1960s while oil was discovered off Scotland in 1975. This led to the development of several support bases in Scotland. Platform construction has declined since 1985. The imminent decline ofNorth Sea gas has led to the construction of liquid gas tankers and import facilities at Milford Haven.
There have been a number of majoroil spills around the coast of Britain. The wreck of theTorrey Canyon in March 1967 resulted in the first majoroil spill. The ship grounded on theSeven Stones reef between Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. The ship was bombed to break it up anddetergent used to disperse the 700 km2 oil slick. It is estimated that 15,000 birds were killed and there was also a large effect onmarine life. As a result of this incident many lessons were learned on how to handle such problems and it led to changes in regulations. The grounding ofMV Braer in January 1993 inShetland led to the loss of 84,700 tons oflight crude oil. There was again a large effect on wildlife, both birds and mammals. Because of the stormy conditions, the oil slick became broken up and had dispersed by October 1994. TheSea Empress hit a rock off Milford Haven in February 1996. Some 730,00 tons of oil were spilt, resulting in an estimated 5,000 birds being killed with much oil being washed up on beaches. It is estimated that the cost of the spill was £60 million.
Britain started installingwind farms off shore in the year 2000. By February 2007 this had reached 2GW capacity though its average output was much less. It could provide up to 1.5% of the United Kingdom's electricity. The capacity of offshore wind farms exceeds that of the onshore ones and is expected to rise over the coming years with many proposals being made.
Thecoastline of the United Kingdom is constantly changing by erosion and deposition of materials. One area suffering from majorerosion is the east coast of England, where in particular the town ofDunwich has been swallowed by the sea. At one time it was one of the largest ports in England but is completely gone. Another place that was largely destroyed isHallsands, which was hit by storms in 1917, its defences having been removed by offshore dredging. Many beaches have hadgroynes constructed on them to control the movement of material.
Some areas of the UK are now under threat from rising sea levels while in the past the North Sea, Bristol Channel and English Channel have been flooded. The land is also still recovering from the deposition of ice on northern parts in the lastice age. Thussouthern England is sinking while Scotland is rising. In some cases it has been decided to not defend areas against sea encroachments in storms, such as inPorlock bay, while valuable areas are being protected. TheThames Barrier was completed in 1994 to prevent flooding in the upper Thames estuary.
In the 18th century people began visiting places on the coast of Britain for pleasure. Initially this was for medical reasons but became popular whenKing George III madeWeymouth his summer home around 1800 and laterKing George IV built a palace atBrighton. Many resorts such asBlackpool became popular when they were linked by railways to the big conurbations. More recently there has been a decline in popularity of British resorts due to the advent of cheappackage holidays abroad with their better weather.
Offshore rowing races are popular in the southwest of England usinggigs based on those originally used in theIsles of Scilly forpilotage and attending wrecks as well as smuggling. These are six oared vessels up to about 10 m long with nearly a 2 m beam.
Manyyacht club "one designs" were popular between 1920 and 1960, such as the Salcombeyawl which was later built in plastic as the Devon yawl. Later more widespreaddinghy designs became more popular, such as the "Enterprise" introduced in 1960. In the late 19th and early part of the 20th century great yachts such as the J-class were built, including "Shamrock V" constructed to attempt to win theAmerica's Cup which originated in 1851.Cowes Week has been held since 1826 and includes a race around theIsle of Wight. TheFastnet race was first sailed in 1925. The firstsingle-handed circumnavigation by a Briton was by John Gusswell between 1955 and 1959, while the firstSingle-Handed Trans-Atlantic Race was held in 1960 and won byFrancis Chichester. The first nonstop circumnavigation race in 1968 was won byRobin Knox-Johnston, while the first "wrong way" circumnavigation was byChay Blyth in 1970. ARound Britain Single Handed Race was instituted in 1966. A sailing speed world record of 36 knots (67 km/h) was set atPortland by a catamaran in 1980.
Frederick W. Lanchester built the firstpower boat in 1898 using a 8 horsepower (6.0 kW), water-cooled engine. Since then power boats have been used as run-abouts and for racing, as well as for water-skiing. Both inboard and outboard engines are used. TheBritish Power Boat Company built many power boats between 1927 and 1946 includingMiss Britain III and PT9 that became the basis ofMotor Torpedo Boats and the USPT boats during the Second World War. The power speed record rose from 95 knots (176 km/h) in 1930 to 123 knots (228 km/h) in 1939. After the war the record speed rose again with runs byDonald Campbell, who was killed during an attempt on the record in 1967.
The increasing popularity of yachting and power boating has led to the creation of many purpose-builtmarinas and the conversion of existing harbours. SeeList of marinas#United Kingdom for those in the United Kingdom.
TheUnited Kingdom Hydrographic Office (first the Admiralty then the Ministry of Defence) is responsible for publishing navigationalnautical charts in Britain, now with worldwide cover. It also produces related publications. Originally based in London, it moved toTaunton in the Second World War. The Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty was set up in 1795 and had seven vessels by 1820. One of its chief interests was in finding aNorthwest Passage around Canada. The first catalogue of charts was produced in 1825. The hydrographic squadron still forms part of the Royal Navy.
One of the first scientific articles onoceanography was byJames Cook who included information on the oceans in his report on his voyages between 1768 and 1779.James Rennell wrote the first textbooks about currents in the Atlantic Ocean andIndian Ocean around 1800. SirJames Clark Ross took the first sounding in the deep sea in 1840 andCharles Darwin published a paper onreefs andatolls as a result of the second voyage ofHMS Beagle (Beagle) in 1831–6. TheRoyal Society sponsored theChallenger (1858) expedition (1872–76) that resulted in a 50 volume report, covering biological, physical and geological aspects. The 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by SirJohn Murray andJohan Hjort resulted in the classic bookThe Depths of the Oceans.
The National Oceanographic Laboratory (later the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences) was set up atGodalming but was transferred to the Southampton Oceanographic Centre in 1994. The latter was renamed theNational Oceanographic Centre. It operates a number of vessels that undertake exploratory cruises as well as various unmanned vehicles and buoys.
A number of places in the UK provide facilities for the study of the various aspects of seamanship, such asOrkney College. These courses lead to Certificates of Competency for particular jobs. Other places, such asLiverpool John Moores University, provide more academic courses on mercantile practice, ship design and operation. TheUniversity of Exeter is one of those places that has specialised in maritime history.
Admiralty law governing relations between entities that operate vessels on the oceans is dealt with by special courts. There was aHigh Court of Admiralty in London and Vice Admiral's Courts in other ports. Originally they dealt with administrative and naval matters but then included piracy cases (from 1700). By the 16th century they had wide powers but these were later reduced until restored in the 19th century. Trade disputes generally are dealt with by thecommercial court. The admiralty laws were a prominent feature in causing the American Revolution.
This is a body of law governing international relations at sea. There have been threeUnited Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea - in 1956, 1960 and 1967 - which have been ratified by Britain. The last one came into force in 1994.
Originallyship design, ornaval architecture, was by the skill of the shipwright only. In the 16th century shipwrights were authorised by the crown and under Henry VII a list of master shipwrights was produced. A treatise on ship design was written in the 16th century. A school of naval architecture was set up at Portsmouth in 1811. Nowadays ship design can be studied at a number of colleges in Britain. The professional body for ship designers in Britain is theRoyal Institution of Naval Architects
The main maritime museum in Britain is theNational Maritime Museum atGreenwich. However, there are nearly 300 smaller ones (including ships) at various ports around Britain. These include museums atKingston upon Hull,Hartlepool and the oldestMerseyside Maritime Museum at theRoyal Albert Dock inLiverpool as well asHMNB Portsmouth. These provide much information on the maritime history of Britain.
Maritime archaeology is important in Britain because of the large number of shipwrecks around the coast and because of the large areas off the coast that have been submerged by rising sea levels. Thearchaeology of shipwrecks covers sites from theBronze Age onward. Many artifacts have been obtained from the southern North Sea, for example. A recent find on the coast wasSeahenge. The subject can be studied at universities inBristol,Bournemouth andSouthampton whileEnglish Heritage is also interested.
Many works ofMarine art have been produced by British artists and on British maritime topics. One of the best known paintings in Britain is "The Fighting Temeraire" byJ. M. W. Turner that hangs in London'sNational Gallery. A lot of seaside resorts have art galleries selling marine subjects.
In addition there is art produced by the sailors themselves, such asscrimshaw.
Britain has had many authors who wrote on marine topics, the sailing era being a popular period.Joseph Conrad, who was born in Poland in 1857, came to Britain in 1878 and was naturalised in 1886. He undertook a voyage in a collier and then a wool clipper, obtaining a master's ticket in 1887. His last voyage in 1916 was in aQ-ship during the war. Conrad wrote many stories based on his experiences, such as "Lord Jim".Basil Lubbock went out to theKlondike and then sailed back fromSan Francisco on a grain ship. From this he wrote "Round the Horn before the Mast" describing the life of an ordinary seaman. After settling down in England he collected facts on sailing ships and wrote books about them.Alan Villiers first sailed in a British square rigger and then in Danish ones. He bought a small Danish fully rigged ship and sailed around the world. After his return he wrote books about square riggers. Many works of fiction have also been written, perhaps the most famous being the series onHoratio Hornblower byC. S. Forester.
There are a large number ofsea shanties that have been collected, many byCecil Sharp atWatchet.
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