| Marcomannic Wars | |||||||||
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| Part of theRoman–Germanic Wars | |||||||||
 Detail of arelief scene on theColumn of Marcus Aurelius (in Rome, Italy), depicting a battle of the Marcomannic Wars, late 2nd century AD | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Roman Empire | Principal Belligerents: | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Imperial family: Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus # Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Commodus Praetorian prefects: Titus Furius Victorinus Marcus Bassaeus Rufus Marcus Macrinius Vindex † Publius Tarrutenius Paternus Field marshals (legati): Publius Helvius Pertinax Marcus Claudius Fronto † Marcus Didius Julianus Gaius Pescennius Niger Decimus Clodius Albinus M. Valerius Maximianus Lucius Gallus Julianus Gaius Vettius Sabinianus Titus Vitrasius Pollio | Marcomanni: Ballomar Quadi: Ariogaesus Iazyges: Banadaspus Zanticus Naristi: Valao | ||||||||
| Units involved | |||||||||
| Full list | Unknown | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 977,000[a] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Moderate | Heavy | ||||||||
TheMarcomannic Wars (Latin:bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum,lit. 'German and Sarmatian war'[b]) were a series of wars lasting from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted theRoman Empire against principally theGermanicMarcomanni andQuadi and theSarmatianIazyges; there were related conflicts with several other Germanic, Sarmatian, andGothic peoples along both sides of the whole length of the Roman Empire's northeastern European border, the riverDanube.
The struggle against the Germans and Sarmatians occupied the major part of the reign ofRoman emperorMarcus Aurelius, and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical workMeditations.[c]
Secure for many years following his ascension to power, the Roman EmperorAntoninus Pius never left Italy; neither did he embark on substantial conquests, all the while allowing his provinciallegates to command his legions entirely.[3] HistorianAdrian Goldsworthy posits that Pius's reluctance to take aggressive military action throughout his reign may have contributed toParthian territorial ambitions.[4] The resultingwar between Parthia and Rome lasted from 161 to 166 AD (under the joint rule ofMarcus Aurelius andLucius Verus) and, although it ended successfully, itsunforeseen consequences for the Empire were great. The returning troops brought with them aplague (the so-calledAntonine Plague), which would eventually kill an estimated 7 to 8 million people, severely weakening the Empire.[5] Despite the consequences of the plague, historianKyle Harper contends that the event should not be treated as a fatal blow to the Empire.[5] Instead, Rome's resilience was demonstrated since the Empire remained intact and Roman birth rates in the decade following the plague subsequently increased.[6]
At the same time, in Central Europe during the second-century AD, the first movements of theGreat Migrations were occurring, as theGoths began moving south-east from their ancestral lands at the mouth of RiverVistula (seeWielbark culture), putting pressure on the Germanic tribes from the north and east. As a result, Germanic tribes and other nomadic peoples launched raids south and west across Rome'snorthern border, particularly intoGaul and across theDanube.[7] Whether this sudden influx of peoples with which Marcus Aurelius had to contend was the result of climate change or overpopulation remains unknown.[8] Theories exist that the various Germanic tribes along the periphery of the Empire may have conspired to test Roman resolve as part of an attempt to bring to possible fruitionArminius's dream of a future united Germanic empire.[9]
Up until these subsequent wars, the Marcomanni and Quadi generally enjoyed amicable relations and access to the Empire's wares—archaeological evidence of Roman household goods and practices illustrate such contact.[10] As with almost all areas within the Empire's reach, the Romans aimed for a combination of military–territorial dominance, while at the same time engaging in mutually beneficial commerce.[11] However, the Marcomanni did not want to submit to Roman territorial dominance or be annexed; instead, they sought "incorporation into the Roman Empire" with favorable economic terms—something Marcus was not willing to tolerate since it went against his policy of dividing and ruling his erstwhile competitors.[12] Eagerness on the part of the Marcommani for terms perhaps left Marcus too comfortable to the degree that he never anticipated any initial aggressive moves from them.[13]
By the early 160s AD, mounting pressures along the Rhine and Danube frontiers led several Germanic tribes to invade Roman territory.[14] Between 162 and 165, incursions by theChatti andChauci intoRaetia andGermania Superior were repelled.[15] In late 166, thousands ofLangobardi andLacringi (possibly the Obii) crossed intoPannonia.[16] These movements increased pressure on other tribes along the Roman frontier.[17]
The invaders were quickly defeated by local forces, including detachments from theLegio I Adiutrix under a commander named Candidus and theAla Ulpia contariorum underMarcus Macrinius Avitus Catonius Vindex.[18] Despite the swift victory, the incursion marked the beginning of a broader crisis.Marcus Iallius Bassus, governor of Pannonia, initiated negotiations with eleven tribes.[19][d] The Marcomannic kingBallomar, a Roman client, mediated and dismissed the raid as unrepresentative.[16] A truce was reached and the tribes withdrew, though no permanent agreement followed. As Rome was still engaged in war with Parthia, the resolution—considered abellum suspensum—was seen as a diplomatic success, though the identities of the original raiders remain uncertain.[20]
TheAntonine Plague severely limited Roman responses in the late 160s.[21] A punitive expedition planned by Marcus Aurelius was postponed until 168. That spring, Marcus and Lucius Verus departed Rome and established headquarters atAquileia.[22] They reorganized defenses in Italy and Illyricum, raised theLegio II Italica andLegio III Italica, and crossed the Alps into Pannonia. The approach of the imperial army reportedly prompted the Marcomanni andVictuali to withdraw and pledge good conduct. The emperors returned to Aquileia for winter quarters, but in January 169, Lucius Verus suffered a fatal stroke en route and died.[e] Marcus returned to Rome to oversee his funeral and deification.[22]
In autumn 169, Marcus Aurelius, accompanied by his son-in-lawClaudius Pompeianus, resumed the campaign.[23] To finance the war effort, Marcus auctioned off imperial property—a measure historianMichael Kulikowski describes as the only viable alternative to raising taxes.[23] The primary Roman objective was to punish theIazyges, a Sarmatian people inhabiting the region between the Danube andRoman Dacia.[19] Early in the campaign, the Iazyges killedMarcus Claudius Fronto, the governor of LowerMoesia.[24]
While the Roman army was preoccupied, other tribes launched opportunistic raids across the frontier.[25] In the east, theCostoboci crossed the Danube, pillagingThrace and reaching as far south asEleusis, where they destroyed the sanctuary of theEleusinian Mysteries, but Rome reclaimed the Balkans with support from the port of Salonae in Dalmatia.[26]
A more serious threat came from the Marcomanni in the west. Led by KingBallomar, they formed a coalition of Germanic tribes, crossed the Danube, and defeated a Roman force of 20,000 nearCarnuntum, in what is sometimes called theBattle of Carnuntum.[27] They then advanced south, ravagingNoricum and reaching northern Italy. The Marcomanni destroyedOderzo (Opitergium) and besiegedAquileia, marking the first hostile incursion into Italy since theCimbri invasion of 101 BC.Titus Furius Victorinus, thePraetorian prefect, attempted to relieve the city but was defeated and likely killed, though some sources attribute his death to plague.[28][f]
In response to the Marcomannic invasion, Marcus Aurelius reoriented Roman priorities and dispatched reinforcements from other frontiers. Command was entrusted toTiberius Claudius Pompeianus, with the future emperorPertinax serving under him.[30] A new defensive zone, thePraetentura Italiae et Alpium, was established to safeguard northern Italy, and theDanube fleet was strengthened.Aquileia was relieved, and by late 171, invading forces had been expelled from Roman territory.[31] Meanwhile, Rome pursued diplomatic efforts to divide its adversaries. Peace treaties were signed with theQuadi andIazyges, while theHasdingi Vandals andLacringi became Roman allies.[32]
During 172, Roman forces crossed the Danube into Marcomannic territory to push back the invasions undertaken by the variousGermanic peoples.[33] Although specific details are scarce, the campaign resulted in the subjugation of the Marcomanni and their allies, theNaristi (or Varistae) and theCotini. Marcus Aurelius added the title "Germanicus" to hiscognomen.[34]
By 173, the Romans began to turn on the Quadi, who had violated their treaty. The campaign culminated in the so-called "Miracle of the Rain," in which the surroundedLegio XII Fulminata was saved by a sudden storm.[g] Ancient accounts differ:Cassius Dio attributed the event to an Egyptian magician invokingMercury, while Christian writers likeTertullian claimed it was the result of Christian prayer.
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In the same year,Didius Julianus, commanding the Rhine frontier, repelled invasions by theChatti andHermunduri, while theChauci raided the coast ofGallia Belgica.
In 174, another campaign was launched against the Quadi. After deposing the pro-Roman kingFurtius, they elevatedAriogaesus, whom Marcus refused to recognize. Marcus captured and exiled him toAlexandria.[h] The Quadi were subdued and compelled to provide hostages, auxiliary troops, and accept Roman garrisons.Following the subjugation of the Quadi, Marcus Aurelius focused on theIazyges, who occupied the plains along theTisza River—a campaign known as theexpeditio sarmatica. After a series of Roman victories, the Iazyges surrendered in 175. Their king, Zanticus, returned 100,000 Roman prisoners and provided 8,000 cavalry auxiliaries, of whom 5,500 were dispatched toBritain.[i] In recognition of the victory, Marcus adopted the title "Sarmaticus".
Marcus may have intended to consolidate the region by forming two new provinces,Marcomannia andSarmatia, incorporating modern-dayCzech Republic andSlovakia. However, these plans were interrupted by the rebellion ofAvidius Cassius, governor of Syria, who declared himself emperor.[35][j]
Marcus marched east with his army, accompanied by auxiliary detachments from the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Naristi, under the command ofMarcus Valerius Maximianus. After suppressing the revolt, Marcus returned to Rome—the first time in nearly eight years. On 23 December 176, he and his sonCommodus celebrated a jointtriumph for victories over the Germans and Sarmatians ("de Germanis" and "de Sarmatis"). TheColumn of Marcus Aurelius was later erected in Rome to commemorate the campaigns, modeled afterTrajan's Column.
Although Marcus Aurelius celebrated his victories in 176, hostilities resumed the following year. In 177, theQuadi rebelled, soon joined by theMarcomanni. Marcus once again marched north to launch a second campaign, thesecunda expeditio Germanica. He arrived atCarnuntum in August 178 and led Roman forces into hostile territory, targeting first the Marcomanni, then the Quadi between 179 and 180.
In a decisive engagement nearLaugaricio (modern-dayTrenčín, Slovakia), Roman forces underMarcus Valerius Maximianus defeated the Quadi. The survivors retreated deeper intoGermania Magna, wherePublius Tarrutenius Paternus, the praetorian prefect, secured another major victory. However, on 17 March 180, Marcus Aurelius died atVindobona (modernVienna). His son and successor,Commodus, showed little interest in continuing the campaign. Ignoring the counsel of his generals, Commodus negotiated peace with the Marcomanni and Quadi. He returned to Rome later that year and celebrated a triumph on 22 October 180.
Following Marcus Aurelius’s death, operations continued beyond the Danube. Roman forces campaigned against theIazyges, theBuri, and the so-called "free Dacians" inhabiting the region between the Danube andRoman Dacia. Details of this phase are sparse, but commanders includedMarcus Valerius Maximianus,Pescennius Niger, andClodius Albinus. An inscription (CIL III 5937) refers to a campaign against theLugii or Buri (Expeditio Burica). These victories were evidently sufficient for Commodus to adopt the title "Germanicus Maximus" by 182.
The Marcomannic Wars revealed vulnerabilities in Rome’s northern defenses. Thereafter, half of the Empire’s legions (16 out of 33) were stationed along the Rhine and Danube. Germanic settlement increased in frontier regions includingDacia,Pannonia,Germania, and parts of Italy. While such integration was not unprecedented, the scale necessitated new administrative measures. Plans were made to establish the provinces ofMarcomannia andSarmatia on the north side of the Danube, encompassing parts of modernCzech Republic andSlovakia. However, not all integration was successful. A group of Germanic settlers inRavenna rebelled and briefly seized control of the city. In response, Marcus Aurelius banned further settlement of "barbarians" in Italy and expelled those already present.[k]
Though the Germanic tribes were checked temporarily, the Marcomannic Wars foreshadowed the large-scale invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries that would contribute to the disintegration of theWestern Roman Empire.
Key: Red arrows: Romans. Green arrows: Marcomanns. Italy and Adriatic Sea at bottom left corner.
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