This article is about the modern day state of India. For the eponymous kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, seeManipura (Mahabharata). For other uses, seeManipur (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withManipura (Mahabharata), an ancient kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata.
"Jewel of India" redirects here. For the highest civilian award of the Republic of India, seeBharat Ratna.
During the days of theBritish Raj, Manipur was one of theprincely states.[11] Prior to the British departure in 1947, Manipur acceded to theDominion of India, along with roughly 550 other princely states.[12] In September 1949, the ruler of Manipur signed a merger agreement with India, giving up his kingdom and obtaining a privy purse in return.[13] Many Meitei people feel that their self-determination was violated by the agreement since the legislature elected under theconstitution was not consulted.[14] Followed by contestation of the merger by groups in Manipur, resulting in a 50-year insurgency in the state for independence from India.[14] From 2009 through 2018, the conflict was responsible for the violent deaths of over 1000 people.[15]
The Meitei people represent around 53% of the population of Manipur state, followed by various Naga tribes at 20% and Kuki-Zo tribes at 16%.[16] Manipur's ethnic groups practice a variety of religions.[17] According to 2011 census,Hinduism andChristianity are the major religions of the state.[17]
Manipur has primarily an agrarian economy, with significant hydroelectric power generation potential. It is connected to other areas by daily flights throughImphal Airport, the second largest in northeastern India.[18] Manipur is home to many sports and the origin ofManipuri dance,[19] and is credited with introducingpolo to Europeans.[20]
Name
The name Manipur (Sanskrit:मणिपुर,romanized: maṇipura,lit. ''city of jewels'') was chosen byGharib Nawaz, a convert to Hinduism, in the eighteenth century. It is named aftera kingdom of the same name mentioned in theMahabharata Hindu epic. Previously, it had been known as Kangleipak (Meitei: ꯀꯪꯂꯩꯄꯛ,romanized:Kangleipak)[21][22] or Meiteileipak (Meitei: ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯩꯕꯥꯛ,Meiteileipak,transl: land of the Meiteis).[23] Later, the workDharani Samhita (1825–34) popularised theSanskrit legends of the origin of Manipur's name.[24]
Other names include Sanaleibak (Meitei: ꯁꯅꯥꯂꯩꯕꯥꯛ,transl: the land of gold, golden land), not given because Manipur has a lot of the gold mines, but because of its happiness and prosperity.[25] This name was mentioned in the 11th-12th century constitution, theLoiyumba Shinyen.10 and is still heard in the official song of Manipur, "Sana Leibak Manipur".
The history of Manipur Meiteis is chronicled inPuyas or Puwaris (stories about the forefathers), namely, the Ninghthou Kangbalon, Cheitharol Kumbaba, Ningthourol Lambuba, Poireiton Khunthokpa, Panthoibi Khongkul, and so forth in theMeitei script, which is comparable to theThai script. The historical accounts presented here were recordings from the eyes and the judgment of Meitei kings andMaichou [simple] (Meitei scholars).
The Kingdoms of Möng Kawng and Möng Mao
According to the Tai chronicles, Manipur (Kahse) is one of the territories conquered by Sam Lông Hpa (1150–1201), the firstChao Pha ofMöng Kawng.[26] A 14th-century inscription fromPagan,Myanmar, mentions Kasan (Manipur) as one of the 21 states under theMong Mao ruler Thonganbwa (1413–1445/6); he later was captured by the Governor ofTaungdwingyi.[27]
In the 18th century,Bodawpaya, the king of Burma acquired the Manipur (1814) along with the western kingdoms ofArakan (1784),Assam (1817).
By the medieval period, marriage alliances between the royal families of Manipur,Ahom kingdom andBurma had become common.[29] Medieval era manuscripts discovered in the 20th century, particularly thePuya, provide evidence that Hindus from the Indian subcontinent had married Manipur royalty by at least the 14th century. In centuries thereafter, royal spouses came also from what is now Assam,Bengal, andUttar Pradesh and from otherSouth Indian kingdoms as well.[30] Another manuscript suggests that Muslims arrived in Manipur in the 17th century, from what is nowBangladesh, during the reign of MeidinguKhagemba.[30] The socio-political turmoil and wars, particularly the persistent and devastatingAnglo-Burmese wars, affected the cultural and religious demography of Manipur.[31]
In 1824, the ruler of Manipur entered into asubsidiary alliance with the British Empire in the Indian subcontinent, which became responsible for Manipur's external defence. The British recognised that the state remained internally self-governing, as aprincely state.[32] DuringWorld War II, Manipur was the scene of many fierce battles between Japanese invaders and British Indian forces. TheJapanese were beaten back before they could enterImphal, which was one of the turning points of the overall war in South Asia.[33] TheBattle of Imphal, known to the Manipuris asJapan Laan, are among the lesser-known battles of the Second World War. Yet the Allied Victory in this battle was a turning point against the Japanese in East Asia.[34][35][36]
Following the decision topartitionBritish India, all the princely states were advised to "accede" to one of the new dominions. The Maharajaacceded to India on 11 August 1947 and signed astandstill agreement to continue all the pre-existing arrangements it had with British India.[12][46][47][48]Some Meitei people argue that the king was in no legal position to sign the instrument of accession at the time.[49][50]
Over the next two years, the multitude of princely states of India were extensively reorganised as India moved towards becoming aconstitutional republic. Proposals for reorganisation were also made for Manipur but discarded as being unsuitable.[51][52] Eventually Manipur was turned into a centrally administered province (called a 'Part C' state, later renamedunion territory) by asking the Maharaja to sign a merger agreement.[53][54] He is believed to have signed it under duress.[55]Later, on 21 September 1949, he signed a Merger Agreement, disputed as having been done without consultation of the popular ministry underManipur State Constitution Act 1947 and denial of the king's request to return to Manipur to discuss the same with his people.[56][57][58][59]Under 'duress' and 'coercion'Bodhachandra Singh signed the merger agreement merging the kingdom into India, which led to its becoming aPart C State.[60][61][62]
The legislative assembly was dissolved and a centrally appointed Chief Commissioner handled the state's administration, as per the Constitution of India. An advisory council with nominated members was provided to advise the Chief Commissioner.[63] In 1956, the advisory council was replaced by a territorial council with mostly elected members.[63][64] In 1963, Manipur was provided a legislative assembly, with a council of ministers headed by a chief minister.[63][65]It was made a fully-fledged state in 1972 by theNorth-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.[63][66]
Manipur has a long record of insurgency and inter-ethnic violence.[67][68] Its first armed opposition group, theUnited National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded in 1964 aiming to achieve independence from India and establish Manipur as a new country. Over time, many more groups formed, each with different goals, and deriving support from diverse ethnic groups in Manipur. ThePeople's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed in 1977, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) in 1978, suspected byHuman Rights Watch of receiving arms and training from China.[69] In 1980, theKangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed. These groups began a spree of bank robberies and attacks on police officers and government buildings.[69] The state government appealed to the central government inNew Delhi for support in combating this violence.[14]
"Disturbed area" designation
From 1980 to 2004, the Indian government referred to Manipur as adisturbed area. This term (designated by theMinistry of Home Affairs or astate governor) refers to a territory where extraordinary laws under theArmed Forces (Special Powers) Act can be used. The laws allow the military to treat private and public spaces in the same manner, detain individuals for up to 24 hours with unlimited renewals, perform warrantless searches, and to shoot and kill individuals who break laws, carry weapons, or gather in groups larger than four. Legal immunity applies to the military.[70] Since 1980, the application of the AFSPA has been at the heart of concerns abouthuman rights violations in the region, such as arbitrary killings, torture, cruel,inhuman and degrading treatment, andforced disappearances. Its continued application has led to numerous protests, notably the longstanding hunger strike byIrom Sharmila Chanu.[71][72]
In 2004, the government lifted thedisturbed status after a violent attack on a local woman. The rape of a Manipuri woman,Thangjam Manorama Devi, by members of theAssam Rifles paramilitary had led to wide protests including a nude protest by theMeira Paibi women's association.[73]
In May 2023, an ethnic clash betweenMeitei people andKuki people led to extensive violence and arson, resulting in 60,000 people displaced from their homes and hundreds more dead and hospitalized.[74] According to data released byManipur Police, as on September 15, 2023; 175 people have been killed; 1,118 people were injured, and 33 people were missing. 96 bodies remained unclaimed. 5,172 cases of arson including destruction of 4,786 houses and 386 religious places, out of which there were 254 churches and 132 temples, were reported since May. Out of 5,668 arms lost;[clarification needed] 1,329 arms, 15,050 ammunition and 400 bombs were recovered.[75][76][77]Indian army troops were deployed to control the situation.[78] International outrage resulted from a report that two Kuki women had been paraded naked and allegedly gang-raped by a mob of Meitei men.[79][80][81]
Geography
Loktak Lake, the largest fresh water lake in the state.
The state lies at a latitude of 23°83'N – 25°68'N and a longitude of 93°03'E – 94°78'E. The total area covered by the state is 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi). The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately 700 sq mi (2,000 km2), surrounded by blue mountains, at an elevation of 790 m (2,590 ft) above sea level.[82] The slope of the valley is from north to south. The mountain ranges create a moderate climate, preventing the cold winds from the north from reaching the valley and barring cyclonic storms.[83]
The state is bordered by the Indian states ofNagaland to its north,Mizoram to its south, Assam to its west, and shares an international border withMyanmar to its east.[84]
A tree amid Manipur hills.
The state has four major river basins: theBarak River Basin (Barak Valley) to the west, theManipur River Basin in central Manipur, theYu River Basin in the east, and a portion of the Lanye River Basin in the north.[85] The water resources of Barak and Manipur river basins are about 1.8487 Mham (million hectare metres). The overall water balance of the state amounts to 0.7236 Mham in the annual water budget.[86] (By comparison, India receives 400 Mham of rain annually.[87])
The Barak River, the largest of Manipur, originates in the Manipur Hills and is joined by tributaries, such as the Irang, Maku, andTuivai. After its junction with the Tuivai, the Barak River turns north, forms the border withAssam State, and then enters theCachar Assam just aboveLakhipur. The Manipur river basin has eight major rivers: theManipur,Imphal,Iril, Nambul, Sekmai, Chakpi, Thoubal and Khuga. All these rivers originate from the surrounding hills.[88]
Landscape view for dawn at Senapati, Manipur
Almost all the rivers in the valley area are in the mature stage and therefore deposit their sediment load in theLoktak Lake.[82] The rivers draining the Manipur Hills are comparatively young, due to the hilly terrain through which they flow. These rivers are corrosive and become turbulent in the rainy season. Important rivers draining the western area include the Maku,Barak, Jiri, Irang, and Leimatak. Rivers draining the eastern part of the state, the Yu River Basin, include the Chamu, Khunou and other short streams.[88]
Manipur may be characterised as two distinct physical regions: an outlying area of rugged hills and narrow valleys, and the inner area of flat plain, with all associated landforms. These two areas are distinct in physical features and are conspicuous in flora and fauna. The valley region has hills and mounds rising above the flat surface. The Loktak Lake is an important feature of the central plain. The total area occupied by all the lakes is about 600 km2. The altitude ranges from 40 m atJiribam to 2,994 m atMount Tempü peak along the border with Nagaland.
The soil cover can be divided into two broad types, viz. the redferruginous soil in the hill area and thealluvium in the valley. The valley soils generally contain loam, small rock fragments, sand, and sandy clay, and are varied. On the plains, especially flood plains and deltas, the soil is quite thick. The topsoil on the steep slopes is very thin. Soil on the steep hill slopes is subject to high erosion, resulting ingullies and barren rock slopes. The normal pH value ranges from 5.4 to 6.8.[89]
Flora
Flowers carpeting the foothills
Natural vegetation occupies an area of about 17,418 km2 (6,725 sq mi),[90] or 77.2% of the total geographical area of the state, and consists of short and tall grasses, reeds andbamboos, and trees. About a third of Manipur's forests are protected: 8.42% of the forested land is categorized under Reserved Forests, and 23.95% under Protected Forests.[91]
There are six major types of forests in Manipur, and 10 subtypes. The six major forest types, according to the state's Forest Department, include Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest, Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Sub-Tropical Pine Forest, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, Montane Wet Temperate Forest and Sub-alpine Forest.[91]
TheDzüko Valley which exists between the boundaries of Manipur and Nagaland has a temperate climate.
Manipur's climate is largely influenced by the topography of the region. Lying 790 metres above sea level, Manipur is wedged among hills on all sides. This northeastern corner of India enjoys a generally amiable climate, though the winters can be chilly. The maximum temperature in the summer months is 32 °C (90 °F). The coldest month is January, and the warmest July.[citation needed]
The state receives an average annual rainfall of 1,467.5 mm (57.78 in) between April and mid-October. Precipitation ranges from light drizzle to heavy downpour. The capital cityImphal receives an annual average of 933 mm (36.7 in). Rainfall in this region is caused by The South WesterlyMonsoon picking up moisture from theBay of Bengal and heading towards theEastern Himalaya ranges. This normal rainfall pattern of Manipur enriches the soil and much of the agrarian activities are dependent on it as well.
Manipur had a population of 2,855,794 at the 2011 census.[94] Of this total, 57.2% lived in the valley districts and the remaining 42.8% in the hill districts. The valley (plain) is mainly inhabited by theMeitei speaking population (nativeManipuri speakers). The hills are inhabited mainly by several ethno-linguistically diverse tribes belonging to theNagas, theKukis and smaller tribal groupings. Naga and Kuki settlements are also found in the valley region, though less in numbers. There are also sizable population of Nepalis, Bengalis, Tamils and Marwaris living in Manipur.[citation needed][verification needed]
The distribution of area, population and density, and literacy rate as per the 2001 Census provisional figures are as below:[citation needed]
TheMeiteis[95] (synonymous to theManipuris) constitute the majority of the state's population. They inhabit theImphal Valley. Nagas and Kuki-Zo are the major tribe conglomerates of tribes inhabiting the surrounding hills. The Kuki-Zos consist of several tribes includingGangte,Hmar,Paite,Simte,Sukte,Thadou,Vaiphei,Zou, and some smaller tribes. They speakKuki-Chin languages and predominate the southern hill districts of Manipur. The prominent Naga tribes areAngami,Kabui,Kacha Naga,Mao,Maram,Poumai,Sema andTangkhul, each speaking its own language. They predominate the northern hill districts of Manipur. In addition, several smaller tribes that were classified as "Old Kuki" by the British administrators populateChandel and neighbouring districts. Some of them now classify themselves as Nagas while others retain the Kuki classification.[a][97][98][99]
Other than Meitei language, in Manipur, there is a huge amount of linguistic diversity, as is the case in most of the Northeast India. Almost all of the languages areSino-Tibetan, with many different subgroups represented. There are multipleKuki-Chin languages, the largest beingThadou and is spoken in all the hill districts. Another major language family is theNaga languages, likeTangkhul,Poula,Rongmei andMao. Less than 5% speak Indo-European languages, mostlyNepali andBengali, which is the major language ofJiribam district.[104]
Hinduism andChristianity are the major religions practiced in Manipur. Between the 1961 and 2011 censuses of India, the share ofHindus in the state declined from 62% to 41%, while the share ofChristians rose from 19% to 41%.[108] The religious groups of the Meitei-speaking people includeHindus,Sanamahists,Meitei Christians andMeitei Pangals. Besides these, the non Meitei-speaking communities (tribals) are mostly Christians.
TheMeitei ethnicity (akaManipuri people) is the majority group following Hinduism in Manipur, beside other minor immigrants following the same faith in the state. Among the indigenous communities of Manipur,Meiteis are the only Hindus as no other indigenous ethnic groups follow this faith.According to the2011 Census of India, about 41.39% of the Manipuri people practiceHinduism. The Hindu population is heavily concentrated in the Meitei dominant areas of the Manipur Valley (Imphal Valley), among the Meitei people. The districts of Bishnupur, Thoubal, Imphal East, and Imphal West all have Hindu majorities, averaging 67.62% (range 62.27–74.81%) according to the 2011 census data.[107]
Vaishnavite Hinduism was the state religion of theKingdom of Manipur. In 1704, Meitei KingCharairongba accepted Vaishnavism and changed his traditional Meitei name into Hindu name, Pitambar Singh.[109] However, the first Hindu temples were constructed much earlier. A copper plate excavated fromPhayeng dating back to 763 CE (believed to be of the reign of Meitei King Khongtekcha) was found to contain inscriptions about the Hindu deities in Sanskrit words.[110] During the 13th century, Meitei King Khumomba constructed a Lord Hanuman temple.[111] The Vishnu temple at Lamangdong was constructed during 1474 CE (during the reign of Meitei KingKiyamba), by Brahmins immigrating from the neighborhoodShan State. As per the legends, the temple was constructed to house the Vishnu emblem given to King Kiyamba by King Khekhomba of Shan. Phurailatpam Shubhi Narayan was the first Brahmin priest of this temple.[112]
Christianity is the religion of 41% of the people in the state, but is the majority in rural areas with 53%, and is predominant in the hills. It was brought by Protestant missionaries to Manipur in the 19th century. In the 20th century, a few Christian schools were established, which introduced Western-type education. Christianity is the predominant religion among tribals of Manipur and tribal Christians make up the vast majority (over 96%) of the Christian population in Manipur.[113]
TheMeitei Pangals (Meitei:ꯃꯩꯇꯩ ꯄꯥꯡꯒꯜ), also known as Meitei Muslims or Manipuri Muslims, are the third largest religious majority group in the state, comprising about 8.3% of the state population. They belong to theSunni group of theHanafi school of Islamic thought and they include Arabs, Turanis, Bengalis and Chaghtai Turks.[114]
Sanamahism is the indigenous, polytheistic and animisticethnic religion of the Meitei people.[115] Sanamahist worship concentrates on the household deityLainingthou Sanamahi. The ancient Meiteis worshiped a Supreme deity, Salailen, and followed their ancestors. Their ancestor worship and animism was based onUmang Lai – ethnic governing deities worshiped in thesacred groves. Some of the traditionalMeitei deities, or Lais are Atiya Sidaba,Pakhangba,Sanamahi, andPanthoibi. Out of the 233,767 people who opted for the "Other religion" option, 222,315 were Sanamahists.[citation needed]
Other religions
The various other religions were mostly followers of tribal folk religions, 6,444 wereHeraka, 2,032 were Jewish and 1,180 were from other tribal religions such as Tingkao Ragwang Chapriak.[citation needed]
The government of Manipur is a collective assembly of 60 elected members, of which 19 are reserved for Scheduled Tribes and 1 for Scheduled Castes.[116] The state sends two representatives to the Lok Sabha of theParliament of India. The state sends one representative to the Rajya Sabha. The legislature of the state is Unicameral.[117] Representatives are elected for a five-year term to the state assembly and the Indian parliament through voting, a process overseen by the offices of the Election Commission of India.[118]
The violence in Manipur extends beyond the conflict between Indian security forces and insurgent armed groups. There is violence between theMeitei ethnicity, variousNaga tribes, variousKuki tribes, and other tribal groups.[14]
Splinter groups have arisen within some of the armed groups, and disagreement between them is rife. Other than the UNLF, PLA, and PREPAK, Manipuri insurgent groups include the Revolutionary Peoples Front (RPF), Manipur Liberation Front Army (MLFA), Kanglei Yawol Kanba Lup (KYKL), Revolutionary Joint Committee (RJC), Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), Peoples United Liberation Front (PULF), Manipur Naga People Front (MNPF), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-K), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-I/M), United Kuki Liberation Front (UKLF), Kuki National Front (KNF), Kuki National Army (KNA), Kuki Defence Force (KDF), Kuki Democratic Movement (KDM), Kuki National Organisation (KNO), Kuki Security Force (KSF), Chin Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF), Kom Rem Peoples Convention (KRPC), Zomi Revolutionary Volunteers (ZRV), Zomi Revolutionary Army (ZRA), Zomi Reunification Organisation (ZRO), and Hmar Peoples Convention (HPC).[120][14]
The Meitei insurgent groups seek independence from India. The Kuki insurgent groups want a separate state for the Kukis to be carved out from the present state of Manipur. The Kuki insurgent groups are under two umbrella organisations: the Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United Peoples Forum.[121] The Nagas wish to annex part of Manipur and merge with a greater Nagaland or Nagalim, which is in conflict with Meitei insurgent demands for the integrity of their vision of an independent state. There have been many tensions between the tribes and numerous clashes between Naga and Kukis, Meiteis and Muslims.[14]
According to SATP in 2014, there had been a dramatic decline in fatalities in Manipur since 2009. In 2009, 77 civilians died (about 3 per 100,000 people).[15] From 2010 onward, about 25 civilians have died in militant-related violence (about 1 per 100,000 people), dropping further to 21 civilian deaths in 2013 (or 0.8 per 100,000 people). However, there were 76 explosions in 2013 compared to 107 in 2012. Different groups have claimed responsibility for the explosions, some claiming they were targeting competing militant groups, others claiming their targets were state and central government officials.[122]As a point of comparison, the average annual global rate of violent death between 2004 and 2009 was 7.9 per 100,000 people.[123]
Economy
Bamboo is common in Manipur, and an important contributor to its economy as well as cuisine. Above issoibum yendem eromba, a bamboo shoot dish of Manipur.
The 2012–2013 gross state domestic product of Manipur at market prices was about₹10,188 crore (US$1.2 billion).[124] Its economy is primarily agriculture, forestry, cottage and trade driven.[125] Manipur acts as India's "Gateway to the East" throughMoreh andTamu towns, the land route for trade between India and Burma and other countries in Southeast Asia, East Asia, Siberia, the Arctic, Micronesia and Polynesia. Manipur has the highest number of handicraft units and the highest number of craftspersons in the northeastern region of India.[126]
Electricity
Manipur produced about 0.1 GWh (0.36 TJ) of electricity in 2010 with its infrastructure.[127] The state hashydroelectric power generation potential, estimated to be over 2 GWh (7.2 TJ). As of 2010, if half of this potential is realised, it is estimated that this would supply24/7 electricity to all residents, with a surplus for sale, as well as supplying the Burma power grid.[128]
Agriculture in Manipur includes a number ofsmallholding farms, many of whom are owned by women.[129] Climate change, especially changes in temperature and weather are hurting small farmers in the state.[130] Likerural women in other parts of the world, women in agriculture in Manipur are harmed more by the changes in weather, because of less access to support from local governments.[129]
Transportation infrastructure
Imphal airport is the second largest airport in India's northeast.
Tulihal Airport, Changangei, Imphal, the only airport of Manipur, connects directly withDelhi,Kolkata,Guwahati, andAgartala. It has been upgraded to aninternational airport. As India's second largest airport in the northeast, it serves as a key logistical centre for northeastern states. The Tulihal Airport has been renamed Bir Tikendrajit Airport.[18]National Highway NH-39 links Manipur with the rest of the country through the railway stations atDimapur in Nagaland at a distance of 215 km (134 mi) from Imphal.[citation needed][verification needed]
National Highway 53 (India) connects Manipur with another railway station atSilchar in Assam, which is 269 km (167 mi) away from Imphal. The road network of Manipur, with a length of 7,170 km (4,460 mi) connects all the important towns and distant villages. However, the road condition throughout the state is often deplorable.[131][132] In 2010, Indian government announced that it is considering an Asian infrastructure network from Manipur toVietnam.[133] The proposedTrans-Asian Railway (TAR), if constructed, will pass through Manipur, connecting India toBurma,Thailand,Malaysia andSingapore.
The tourist season is from October to February when it is often sunny without being hot and humid.[citation needed] The culture features martial arts, dance, theatre and sculpture. Greenery accompanies a moderate climate. The seasonalShirui Lily plant atUkhrul (district),Dzüko Valley at Senapati,Sangai (Brow antlered deer) and thefloating islands atLoktak Lake are among the rarities of the area.Polo, which can be called a royal game, originated in Manipur.
Rare birds and flowers include:Nongin[140] is the state bird (top) and Siroi Lily[141] is its state flower (middle). Leimaram falls, bottom, is a local attraction.
48 km (30 mi) fromImphal, lies the largest fresh water lake in northeast India, theLoktak Lake, a miniature inland sea. There is a tourist bungalow atop Sendra Island. Life on the lake includes small islands that are floating weed on which live the lake people, the blue waters of the lake, and colourful water plants. There is aSendra tourist home with an attached cafeteria in the middle of the lake.Floating islands are made out of the tangle of watery weeds and other plants. The wetland is swampy and is favourable for a number of species. It is in the district ofBishnupur. The etymology of Loktak is "lok = stream / tak = the end" (End of the Streams).[82] Sendra park and resort is opening on the top of Sendra hills and attracting the tourist.
Hills and valleys
Kaina is ahillock about 921 m (3,022 ft) above sea level. It is a sacred place for Manipuri Hindus. The legend is that, Shri Govindajee appeared in the dream of his devotee, Shri Jai Singh Maharaja, and asked the saintly king to install in a temple, an image ofShri Govindajee. It was to be carved out of ajack fruit tree, which was then growing atKaina. It is 29 km (18 mi) from Imphal. TheDzüko Valley is in Senapati district bordering with Kohima. There are seasonal flowers and number of flora and fauna. It is at an altitude of 2,438 m (7,999 ft) above sea level, behindMount Japfü in Nagaland. The rare Dzüko lily is found only in this valley.[citation needed]
Eco tourism
Sangai, the state animal, at Keibul Lamjao National Park. In the wild, it has a habit of waiting and looking back at viewers.[142]
Keibul Lamjao National Park, 48 km (30 mi) away from Imphal is an abode of the rare and endangered species ofbrow antlered deer. This ecosystem contains 17 rare species of mammals.[82] It is the only floating national park of the world.[143][citation needed]Six km (3.7 mi) to the west ofImphal, at the foot of the pine growing hillocks at Iroisemba on the Imphal-Kangchup Road are theZoological Gardens. Somebrow antlered deer (Sangai) are housed there.
Waterfalls
Sadu Chiru waterfall is near Ichum Keirap village[144] 27 km (17 mi) from Imphal, in the Sadar hill area, Senapati district. This consists of three falls with the first fall about 30 m (98 ft) high. Agape Park is in the vicinity.
Natural caves
Thalon Cave (around 910 m (2,990 ft) above sea level) is one of the historical sites of Manipur underTamenglong district. It is around 185 km (115 mi) from the state capital and around 30 km (19 mi) from Tamenglong district headquarters in north side. From Thalon village, this cave is 4–5 km (2.5–3.1 mi).[145] Khangkhui Cave is a natural limestone cave inUkhrul district. The big hall in the cave is the darbar hall of the Devil King living deep inside while the northern hall is the royal bedroom, according to local folklore. During World War II, villagers sought shelter here. This cave is an hour's trek from Khangkui village.[146]
Secular theatre is mostly confined to themes that are not religious; it is performed in the secular or profane spheres. In these areShumang lila andPhampak lila (stage drama).Shumang lila is very popular. Etymologically Shumang lila is the combination of "Shumang" (courtyard) and "Lila" (play or performance). It is performed in an area of 13×13 ft in the centre of any open space, in a very simple style without a raised stage, set design, or heavy props such as curtains, background scenery, and visual effects. It uses one table and two chairs, kept on one side of the performance space. Its claim as the "theatre of the masses" is underlined by the way it is performed in the middle of an audience that surrounds it, leaving one passage as entrance and exit.[citation needed]
The world ofPhampak lila (stage drama) performed in the proscenium theatre is similar, in form, to the Western theatrical model and IndianNatyasastra model though its contents are indigenous. The so-called modern theatre descended on Manipur theatre culture with the performance of Pravas Milan (1902) under the enthusiastic patronage ofSir Churchand Maharaj (1891–1941). The pace of theatrical movement was geared up with the institution of groups such asManipur Dramatic Union (MDU) (1930), Arian Theatre (1935), Chitrangada Natya Mandir (1936), Society Theatre (1937), Rupmahal (1942), Cosmopolitan Dramatic Union (1968), and the Chorus Repertory Theatre ofRatan Thiyam (1976).[citation needed] These groups started experimenting with types of plays apart from historical andPuranic ones. Today Manipur theatre is well respected because of excellent productions shown in India and abroad. Manipur plays, bothShumang lila andstage lila, have been a regular feature in the annual festival of theNational School of Drama, New Delhi.[citation needed]
Iskcon led byBhaktisvarupa Damodara Swami started a network of schools in Northeastern India, where more than 4,000 students receive education centred on Vaishnava spiritual values. In 1989 he founded "Ranganiketan Manipuri Cultural Arts Troupe", which has approximately 600 performances at over 300 venues in over 15 countries. Ranganiketan (literally "House of Colorful Arts") is a group of more than 20 dancers, musicians, singers, martial artists, choreographers, and craft artisans.[citation needed] Some of them have received international acclaim.
Manipuri dance, one of eight the classical dances of India
Manipuri dance also known as Jagoi,[147] is one of the majorIndian classical dance forms,[148] named after the state of Manipur.[149][150] It is particularly known for its HinduVaishnavism themes, and exquisite performances of love-inspired dance drama of Radha-Krishna calledRaslila.[149][147][151] However, the dance is also performed to themes related toShaivism,Shaktism and regional deities such as Umang Lai duringLai Haraoba.[152][153] The roots of Manipur dance, as with all classical Indian dances, is the ancientHindu Sanskrit textNatya Shastra, but with influences from the culture fusion between India and Southeast Asia, East Asia, Siberia, Micronesia and Polynesia.[154]
Chorus Repertory Theatre
The auditorium of the theatre is on the outskirts of Imphal and the campus stretches for about 2 acres (8,100 m2). It has housing and working quarters to accommodate self-sufficiency of life. The theatre association has churned out internationally acclaimed plays likeChakravyuha andUttarpriyadashi. Its 25 years of existence in theatre had disciplined its performers to a world of excellence.Chakravyuha taken from the Mahabharat epic had won Fringe Firsts Award, 1987 at the Edinburgh International Theater Festival.Chakravyuha deals with the story ofAbhimanyu (son of Arjun) of his last battle and approaching death, whereasUttarpriyadashi is an 80-minute exposition ofEmperor Ashoka's redemption.[citation needed]
Mukna is a popular form of wrestling.[155] Mukna Kangjei, orKhong Kangjei, is a game which combines the arts ofmukna (wrestling hockey) andKangjei (Cane Stick) to play the ball made of seasonedbamboo roots.[156][157]
Yubi lakpi is a traditional full contact game played in Manipur, India, using a coconut, which has some notable similarities torugby.[157]Yubi lakpi literally means "coconut snatching". The coconut is greased to make it slippery. There are rules of the game, as with all Manipur sports.[158] The coconut serves the purpose of a ball and is offered to the king, the chief guest or the judges before the game begins. The aim is to run while carrying the greased coconut and physically cross over the goal line, while the other team tackles and blocks any such attempt as well as tries to grab the coconut and score on its own. In Manipur's long history, Yubi lakpi was the annual official game, attended by the king, over the Hindu festival of Shree Govindajee.[159] It is like the game ofrugby,[160] or American football.[161]
Oolaobi (Woo-Laobi) is an outdoor game mainly played by females. Meitei mythology believes that UmangLai Heloi-Taret (seven deities–seven fairies) played this game on the Courtyard of the temple of Umang Lai Lairembi. The number of participants is not fixed but are divided into two groups (size as per agreement). Players are divided as into Raiders (Attackers) or Defenders (Avoiders).[157]Hiyang Tannaba, also calledHi Yangba Tanaba, is a traditional boat rowing race and festivity of the Panas.[157]
Polo
The rules-based Polo game in 19th century Manipur (above), and modern Polo in the 21st century.
The origin of modern polo can be traced to Manipur where the world's oldest polo ground lies,Imphal Polo Ground.[162][163] Captain Robert Stewart and Lieutenant Joseph Sherer[164] of the British colonial era first watched locals play a rules-basedpulu orsagolkangjei (literally, horse and stick) game in 1859. They adopted its rules, calling the game polo, and playing it on their horses. The game spread among the British in Calcutta and then to England.[20][165]
Apart from these games, some outdoor children's games are fading in popularity. Some games such as Khutlokpi, Phibul Thomba, and Chaphu Thugaibi remain very popular elsewhere, such as inCambodia. They are played especially during the Khmer New Year.[166]
First of its kind in India, National Sports University will be constructed in Manipur.[167]
Festivals
TheLai Haraoba, a dance festival showcases the folk dances of Manipur.
The festivals of Manipur are Lui-ngai-niNingol Chakouba, Shirui Lily festival,Yaoshang, Gan-ngai, Chumpha,Cheiraoba, Kang andHeikru Hidongba, as well as the broader religious festivalsEid-Ul-Fitr,Eid-Ul-Adha andChristmas. Most of these festivals are celebrated on the basis of the lunar calendar. Almost every festival celebrated in other states of India is observed.
On 21 November 2017, the Sangai Festival 2017 was inaugurated by PresidentRam Nath Kovind in Manipur. Held for 10 days, the festival is named after Manipur's state animal, the brow-antlered Sangai deer. The Sangai Festival showcases the tourism potential of Manipur in the field of arts and culture, handloom, handicrafts, indigenous sports, cuisine, music and adventure sports.
Sangai Deer Replica at Sangai Festival ManipurRam Nath Kovind at the inaugural event of ‘Manipur Sangai Festival 2017’Narendra Modi giving an address at the closing function of the Sangai Festival, 2014Sangai Festival (Meitei:Sangai Kumhei) is an annualcultural festival organised by Manipur Tourism Department every year from 21 to 30 November.[168] Even though many editions of this Festival has been celebrated over the past few years with the name ofTourism Festival, since 2010 this has been renamed as theSangai Festival to stage the uniqueness of the shy and gentle brow-antlered deer popularly known as theSangai, a regional name given to this rare species of deer. It is the state animal of Manipur. As this festival is being celebrated to promote Manipur as a world class tourism destination, it showcases the states contributions to art and culture,handloom,handicrafts, fine arts, indigenous sports,cuisine, music and adventure sports, as well as the natural environment.[169] it is celebrated in different parts mainly in the valley areas of imphal. Many tourists come from all over the world and represent their craft making. Many people have also started to talk about the way Sangai festival is celebrated. They say that it should be celebrated only in one place with a proper arrangement and with big budget so that this festival grows more bigger and unique and spread all over the world.
Ningol Chakouba
Held on 9 November,[170] this is a social festival of theMeitei people of Manipur where married women (Ningol) are invited (Chakouba, literally calling to a meal; for dinner or lunch) to a feast at their parental house accompanied by their children. Besides the feast, gifts are given to the women/invitees and to their children. It is the festival that binds and revives the family relations between the women married away and the parental family. Nowadays, other communities have started celebrating this kind of a family-bonding festival.
Kut
Held after the Harvest festival in November,[171][172] this festival predominantly celebrated by Kuki-Chin-Mizo tribes in Manipur has become one of the leading festivals of the state. Kut is not restricted to a community or tribe — the whole state populace participates in merriment. On 1 November of every year, the state declared holiday for Kut celebration.
Held in February or March,[173] Yaosang is considered to be one of the biggest festivals of Manipur. It is the Holi festival (festival of colour) but Yaosang is the regional name given by the people of Manipur.
Khuado Pawi
Khuado Pawi is the harvest festival of theTedim people who were recognised asSukte andZomi in India andMyanmar respectively. The word Pawi meansfestival in Tedim Zomi language. It is celebrated every year in the month of September–October after harvesting.[174]
Cheiraoba is a celebration of the new year during the spring season. People feast (top), then climb up a hill together later in the day to signify overcoming hurdles and reaching new heights in the new year.[161]
Also known as Sajibugi Nongma Panba and held in March or April,Cheiraoba is the new year of Manipur.[161] It is observed on the first lunar day of the lunar monthSajibu (March/April) and so it is also popularly known asSajibu Cheiraoba. People of Manipur immaculate and decorate their houses and make a sumptuous variety of dishes to feast upon after offering food to the deity on this day. After the feast, as a part of the ritual, people climb hilltops; in the belief that it would excel them to greater heights in their worldly life.[161]
Consortium of Producers of Chak-Hao (Black Rice) from Imphal, proposed the GI registration of Chak-Hao. After filing the application in December 2017, the rice was granted the GI tag in 2020 by the Geographical Indication Registry inChennai, making the name "Chak-Hao" exclusive to the rice grown in the region. It thus became the first rice variety from Manipur and Nagaland. It also is the 5th type of goods from Manipur and 4th from Nagaland to earn the GI tag respectively.[177]
The GI tag protects the rice from illegal selling and marketing, and gives it legal protection and a unique identity.
^The Old Kuki tribes retaining the Kuki classification include: Aimol, Chiru, Kom, Koireng, Kharam, and Ralte. The tribes under the Naga umbrella include: Anal, Chothe, Koirao, Lamkang, Maring, Moyon, Monsang, Purum and Tarao.[96]
^Naorem Sanajaoba (Editor),Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Volume 4, Chapter 2: NT Singh,ISBN978-8170998532
^abFurber, The Unification of India (1951), p. 357: "... in July and August 1947 all of the princely states within the geographical orbit of India as distinct from that of Pakistan (except Hyderabad, Kashmir and Junagadh) "acceded" to India in accordance with the procedure laid down in the [Government of] India Act of 1935 as adapted and amended by the Government of the new Dominion of India. The important states "acceded" only with respect to defence, external affairs and communications as defined in List I of Schedule VII of the [Government of] India Act of 1935."
^Ibochou Singh, Khwairakpam (1985).British administration in Manipur 1891–1947 (Thesis). Guwahati University/Shodhganga. pp. 224–225.hdl:10603/66697.
^Thoiba Singh, Wakambam (1984).Meetei Polity – A study of the socio-economic and political changes among the Meeteis from 1750 to 1950 (Thesis). Guwahati University/Shodhganga. p. 233 (Chapter 5).hdl:10603/69732.The Governor of Assam having conveyed the message of the Cabinet Mission to the Maharaja of Manipur, the latter announced the appointment of a constitution making committee to draft the future constitution of Manipur.
^Choudhury, Sanghamitra (2016),Women and Conflict in India, Routledge, pp. 35–36,ISBN978-1-317-55362-5,The elections were held and the new government was formed in Manipur, but it was not responsible to the legislature; Instead, it was only responsive to the legislature, which was a technicality devised by the constitutional experts of Maharaja.
^Why Pre-Merger Political Status for Manipur: Under the Framework of the Instrument of Accession, 1947, Research and Media Cell, CIRCA, 2018, p. 26, GGKEY:8XLWSW77KUZ,Before the controversial merger, both Manipur and India were bound by the Instrument of Accession (IOA) which the King of Manipur signed on 11 August 1947. The IOA was accepted by the Governor General of India Lord Mountbatten on 16 August 1947 vide Home Department, Government of India file no A-1/1/1947. Subsequently, the Manipur State Council approved the IOA in its meeting held on 22 August 1947 Vide Memo No. 383 PTI Reference Council Minutes Part I of 11-8-1947. The execution of the Instrument of Accession was published in the Manipur State Gazette on 27 August 1947.
^Sudhirkumar Singh, Socio-religious and Political Movements (2011), chapter 6, p. 139: "The Dominion of India once again successfully convinced the Maharaja of Manipur to sign the Instrument of Accession along with the Governor General of India on 11 August 1947 on the promise of protecting the internal authority, autonomy and welfare of the state."
^Sanatomba, Interrogation into the political status of Manipur (2015), pp. 172–193: "Furthermore, Section 9(b) of the Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947, would certainly dispel any doubt about the titular status of the Maharaja, which was expressedly stated thus: ‘The Maharaja means His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur, the constitutional head of the state.’ The Maharaja in his capacity as the constitutional ruler could not execute the Instrument without proper authorisation and constitutional endorsement. This was simply on account of the fact that he was not a sovereign ruler and that Manipur was not a sovereign state then. Therefore, the act of signing the Instrument of Accession on 11 August 1947 by the Maharaja could not be considered an Act of the State. Hence, the Instrument was deemed null and void right from the moment it was executed... For example, the Indian Dominion had never existed on or before 11 August 1947. Being so, it can be aptly said that the Maharaja acceded to a political non-entity. Therefore, it can be claimed that the Instrument was never executed in actuality. It was simply pre-judicial to execute the Instrument between two political entities which were yet to be born."
^Furber, The Unification of India (1951), pp. 366–367: 'Finally we must note the process whereby certain other princely states have become "centrally administered areas" with a constitutional status analogous to that of the former "Chief Commissioners' Provinces". This was done by having the rulers execute merger agreements in almost precisely the same terms as those executed by rulers whose states were merged in provinces... The princely states which have thus become "centrally administered areas" at the dates below specified are: ... (6) Manipur, September 1949;... Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Tripura, and Manipur are all on the international borders of India. For Tripura and Manipur, direct administration from New Delhi was desirable for strategic reasons;...'
^Rustomji, Nari (1971),Enchanted Frontiers, Oxford University Press, p. 109 – via archive.org
^Sanatomba, Interrogation into the political status of Manipur (2015), p. 210: "The Maharaja refused to sign the Merger Agreement without consulting his Council of Ministers and conveyed his desire to return to Manipur to obtain the approval of the people. Rejecting such a reasonable proposal, Nari Rustomji, Advisor to the Governor of Assam, suggested that the Maharaja might as well finalise the merger issue during that current visit only.. (Singh 1988: 106)"
^Akoijam, A. Bimol (2001)."How History Repeats Itself".Economic and Political Weekly.36 (30):2807–2812.ISSN0012-9976.JSTOR4410908.When maharaja Bodhchandra resisted the move to merge Manipur with the Indian union saying that he was only a constitutional monarch and he needed to consult his elected members of the state assembly, the representatives of the union government informed him that the GoI did not recognise the assembly
^Phanjoubam, Pradip (14 December 2015).The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers. Routledge. pp. 204–207.ISBN978-1-317-34004-1.after six days of 'per-suasion', made to sign the Merger Agreement, thereby formally merging Manipur with the Union of India. Repeated pleas by the king that it was his desire to ultimately sign the agreement, but he be first allowed to go home and consult his assembly was turned down...
^Meetei, Nameirakpam Bijen (2014). "Ethnicity, Colonial Legacies, and Postindependence Issues of Identity Politics in North-East India".Nationalism and Ethnic Politics.20:99–115.doi:10.1080/13537113.2014.879768.S2CID144397292.
^abG. Hiamguanglung Gonmei, "Hills Economy of Manipur: A Structural Change",Journal of North East India Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, January–June 2013, pp. 61–73
^"The Floating Islands of India".earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 7 May 2018. Retrieved13 March 2023.The largest island is home to the Keibul Lamjao, the world's only floating national park. It serves as a habitat for the endangered brow-antlered sangai, or "dancing deer," whose hooves have adapted to the island's spongy ground. The park, covering 15 square miles (40 km2), was specifically created to preserve the deer, which were once thought to be extinct.
^Williams 2004, pp. 83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela.
Gogoi, Padmeswar (1956).The political expansion of the Mao Shans.
Luce, G.H; Htway, Tin (1976), "A 15th Century Inscription and Library at Pagán, Burma",Malalasekera Commemoration Volume. Colombo: The Malalasekera Commemoration Volume Editorial Committee, Dept of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ceylon, pp. 203–256
Lieberman, Victor B. (2003).Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-80496-7.
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