Sealstone of Mani, rock crystal, possibly 3rd century CE, Iraq.Cabinet des Médailles, Paris.[1][2] The seal reads "Mani, messenger of the messiah", and may have been used by Mani himself to sign his epistles.[3][1]
Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far throughAramaic-speaking regions.[15] It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as theRoman Empire.[16] It was briefly the main rival toearly Christianity in the competition to replace classicalpolytheism before thespread of Islam. Under the RomanDominate, Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire.[5]
Manichaeism survived longer in the east than it did in the west. The religion was present in the Middle East into theAbbasid Caliphate period in the 10th century. It was also present in China despite increasingly strict proscriptions under theTang dynasty and was the official religion of theUyghur Khaganate until its collapse in 830. It experienced a resurgence under the MongolYuan dynasty during the 13th and 14th centuries but was subsequently banned by the Chinese emperors, and Manichaeism there became subsumed into Buddhism and Taoism.[17] Some historic Manichaean sites still exist in China, including the temple ofCao'an inJinjiang, Fujian, and the religion may have influenced later movements in Europe, includingPaulicianism,Bogomilism, andCatharism.
While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.[18]
An adherent of Manichaeism is called aManichaean,Manichean, orManichee.[19]
Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in thelate-AramaicSyriac language. The seventh, theShabuhragan,[24] was written by Mani inMiddle Persian and presented by him toSasanian emperorShapur I. Although there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries.[25]
A 14th-century illustration of the execution ofMani
While Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such asZoroastrianism were still prevalent, andChristianity was gaining social and political influence. Although having fewer adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures. With the assistance of the Sasanian Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions. After failing to win the favour of the next generation of Persian royalty and incurring the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by the Persian emperorBahram I. The date of his death is estimated at 276–277 CE.
Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster,[28] and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for theentire world, calling his teachings the "Religion of Light". Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was twelve years old and again when he was 24, and over this period, he grew dissatisfied with theElcesaites, theJewish ChristianGnostic sect he was born into.[29] Some researchers also point to an importantJain influence on Mani as extreme degrees ofasceticism and some specific features of Jain doctrine made the influence ofMahāvīra's religious community more plausible than even the Buddha.[30] Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted fromWestern Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs.[31]
Mani wore colorful clothing abnormal for the time that reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persianmagus orwarlord, earning him ire from theGreco-Roman world because of it.[32]
Mani taught how the soul of a righteous individual returns toParadise upon dying, but "the soul of the person who persisted in things of the flesh – fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a succession of bodies."[33]
Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements such asMandaeism, Aramaic translations ofJewish apocalyptic works similar to those found atQumran (e.g., theBook of Enoch literature), and by the Syriacdualist-Gnostic writerBardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani). With the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcasaites and possibly influenced by their writings.[citation needed]
According to biographies preserved byibn al-Nadim and the Persianpolymathal-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" (Imperial Aramaic:תאומאtɑʔwmɑ, from which is also derived the Greek name ofThomas the Apostle,Didymus;the "twin"),Syzygos (Koinē Greek:σύζυγος "spouse, partner", in theCologne Mani-Codex), "Double," "Protective Angel," or "Divine Self." This spirit taught him wisdom that he then developed into a religion. It was his "Twin" who brought Mani toself-realization. Mani claimed to be theParaclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the New Testament.[34]
Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus depicts Jesus Christ as a Manichaean prophet. The figure can be identified as a representation of Jesus Christ by the small gold cross that sits on the redlotus throne in His left hand.
Jesus in Manichaeism possessed three separate identities: (1) Jesus the Luminous, (2) Jesus theMessiah and (3) Jesuspatibilis (the suffering Jesus).
(1) As Jesus the Luminous ... his primary role was as supreme revealer and guide and it was he who woke Adam from his slumber and revealed to him the divine origins of his soul and its painful captivity by the body and mixture with matter.
(2) Jesus the Messiah was an historical being who was the prophet of the Jews and the forerunner of Mani. However, the Manichaeans believed he was wholly divine, and that he never experienced human birth, as the physical realities surrounding the notions of his conception and his birth filled the Manichaeans with horror. However, the Christian doctrine of virgin birth was also regarded as obscene. Since Jesus the Messiah was the light of the world, where was this light, they reasoned, when Jesus was in the womb of the Virgin? Jesus the Messiah, they believed, was truly born only at his baptism, as it was on that occasion that the Father openly acknowledged his sonship. The suffering, death and resurrection of this Jesus were in appearance only as they had no salvific value but were an exemplum of the suffering and eventual deliverance of the human soul and a prefiguration of Mani's own martyrdom.
(3) The pain suffered by the imprisoned Light-Particles in the whole of the visible universe, on the other hand, was real and immanent. This was symbolized by the mystic placing of the Cross whereby the wounds of the passion of our souls are set forth. On this mystical Cross of Light was suspended the Suffering Jesus (Jesus patibilis) who was the life and salvation of Man. Thismystica crucifixio was present in every tree, herb, fruit, vegetable and even stones and the soil. This constant and universal suffering of the captive soul is exquisitely expressed in one of the Coptic Manichaean psalms.[35]
Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ".[36] Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras such as the Buddha,Krishna, and Zoroaster in addition to Jesus himself.
Academics note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-centuryMuslim historians likeal-Biruni andibn al-Nadim in hisal-Fihrist; the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets."[37] However, given the Islamic milieu ofArabia and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaens would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, notMuhammad, was the "Seal of the Prophets".[38] In reality, for Mani the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" is not a reference to his finality in a long succession of prophets as it is used in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who testify or attest to his message as a "seal").[39][40]
10th century Manichaean Electae inGaochang (Khocho), China
Other sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic originals of theBook of Enoch,2 Enoch, and an otherwise unknown section of the Book of Enoch entitledThe Book of Giants. Mani quoted the latter directly and expanded upon it, becoming one of the six original Syriac writings of the Manichaean Church. Besides short references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original sources ofThe Book of Giants (which is actually part six of the Book of Enoch) were available until the 20th century.[41]
Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic Book of Giants (which were analyzed and published byJózef Milik in 1976)[42] and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published byWalter Bruno Henning in 1943)[43] were discovered along with theDead Sea Scrolls in theJudaean desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of theUyghur Manichaean kingdom inTurpan. Henning wrote in his analysis of them:
It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names ofSām,Narīmān, etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language.[43]
By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the Enochic literature.[44] This literature describes the being that the prophets saw in their ascent toHeaven as a king who sits on a throne at thehighest of the heavens. In the Manichaean description, this being, the "Great King of Honor", becomes a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light placed at the seventh of ten heavens.[45] In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, overall, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted byTheodore bar Konai,[46] he is calledmalkā rabbā d-iqārā ("the Great King of Honor").[citation needed]
Mani was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac and presented a dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness in combination with elements from Christianity.[47]
Mani was heavily inspired by Iranian Zoroastrian theology.[28]
Akshobhya in theabhirati with the Cross of Light, a symbol of Manichaeism
Noting Mani's travels to theKushan Empire (several religious paintings inBamyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselytizing career,Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism:
Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhistsangha.[48]
TheKushan monkLokakṣema began translatingPure Land Buddhist texts into Chinese in the century prior to Mani arriving there. The Chinese texts of Manichaeism are full of uniquely Buddhist terms taken directly from these Chinese Pure Land scriptures, including the term "pure land" (Chinese:淨土;pinyin:jìngtǔ) itself.[49] However, the central object of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism,Amitābha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, does not appear inChinese Manichaeism and seems to have been replaced by another deity.[50]
A map of the spread of Manichaeism (300–500).World History Atlas, Dorling Kindersly.
Manichaeism reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq in 280, who was also inEgypt in 244 and 251. It flourished in theFaiyum in 290.
Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the time ofPope Miltiades.[51]
In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian Empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by EmperorBahram II and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. Then, in 302, the first official reaction and legislation against Manichaeism from the Roman state was issued underDiocletian. In an official edict called theDe Maleficiis et Manichaeis compiled in theCollatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum and addressed to theproconsul of Africa, Diocletian wrote:
We have heard that the Manichaeans [...] have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung forth very recently like new and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the Persians – a nation still hostile to us – and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing many outrages, disturbing the tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent) ... We order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and, together with their abominable writings, burnt in the flames. We direct their followers, if they continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and the offenders sent to the (quarry) atPhaeno or the mines atProconnesus. And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands.[52]
By 354,Hilary of Poitiers wrote that Manichaeism was a significant force inRoman Gaul. In 381, Christians requestedTheodosius I to strip Manichaeans of theircivil rights. Starting in 382, the emperor issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers.[53]
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism in the year 387. This was shortly after the Roman emperorTheodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391. Due to the heavy persecution, the religion almost disappeared from Western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.[54]
According to hisConfessions, after nine or ten years of adhering to the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of "hearers",Augustine of Hippo became a Christian and potent adversary of Manichaeism (which he expressed in writing against his Manichaean opponentFaustus of Mileve), seeing their beliefs that knowledge was the key to salvation as too passive and unable to affect any change in one's life.[55]
I still thought that it is not we who sin but some other nature that sins within us. It flattered my pride to think that I incurred no guilt and, when I did wrong, not to confess it ... I preferred to excuse myself and blame this unknown thing which was in me but was not part of me. The truth, of course, was that it was all my own self, and my own impiety had divided me against myself. My sin was all the more incurable because I did not think myself a sinner.[56]
Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups into elect, hearers, and sinners, and the hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and his dualistic theology.[57]
A 13th-century manuscript from Augustine's book VII ofConfessions criticizing Manichaeism
SomeSogdians in Central Asia believed in the religion.[58][59]Uyghur khagan Boku Tekin (759–780) converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with its preachers,[60][61] the Babylonian headquarters sent high-rank clerics to Uyghur, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a century before the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.[citation needed]
After the defeat of theUighur Khaganate by theYenisei Kyrgyz, Manichaeism spread north to theKhakass-Minusinsk depression. Archaeological excavations in theUybat valley revealed the existence of a Manichaean center there, which included 6 temples and 5 sanctuaries of the elements, and architecturally it was similar to the Sogdian structures in Tuva and Xinjiang. In the 1970s, a Manichaean temple that existed in the 8th-10th centuries was excavated 90 km from the Uybat center in the Puyur-sukh valley.L.R Kyzlasov interpreted these finds as evidence of the adoption of Manichaeism as an official religion in the Kyrgyz Kaganate. Few Khakass Manichaean epitaphs confirm this version; the Manichaean script also influenced the Yenisei runic script at a late stage of its development. South Siberian Manichaeism existed before the Mongol conquest. Later, it influenced the formation of the culture of the Sayano-Altai Turks (Altaians,Khakas,Tuvans), as well as theKhants,Selkups,Kets andEvenks. This influence affected the everyday beliefs of the indigenous peoples and the lexical composition of their languages.[62]
After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated inpeasant movements. Many rebel leaders used religion to mobilize followers. InSong andYuan China, remnants of Manichaeism continued to leave a legacy contributing to sects such as theRed Turbans. During the Song dynasty, the Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese asChīcài shìmó (Chinese:吃菜事魔, meaning that they "abstain from meat and worship demons").[65][66]
An account inFozu Tongji, an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the "White Buddha" and their leader wore a violet headgear, while the followers wore white costumes. Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song government and were eventually quelled. After that, all governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its followers, and the religion was banned inMing China in 1370.[67][66] While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent[when?] archaeological discovery demonstrated that it was already known there in the second half of the 6th century.[68]
The nomadicUyghur Khaganate lasted for less than a century (744–840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city ofOrdu-Baliq on the UpperOrkhon River as its capital.[69] Before the end of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of the Uyghur state. Boku Tekin banned all the shamanistic rituals that had previously been in use. His subjects likely accepted his decision. That much results from a report that the proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. In an inscription in which the Kaghan speaks for himself, he promised the Manichaen high priests (the "Elect") that if they gave orders, he would promptly follow them and respond to their requests. An incomplete manuscript found in theTurfan Oasis gives Boku Tekin the title ofzahag-i Mani ("Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani"), a title of majestic prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia.
Nonetheless, and despite the apparently willing conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeanism, traces and signs of the previous shamanistic practices persisted. For instance, in 765, only two years after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China, the Uyghur troops called forth magicians to perform a number of specific rituals. Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great respect a sacred forest inOtuken.[69] The conversion to Manichaeism led to an explosion of manuscript production in the Tarim Basin and Gansu (the region between the Tibetan and the Huangtu plateaus), which lasted well into the early 11th century. In 840, the Uyghur Khaganate collapsed under the attacks of theYenisei Kyrgyz, and the new Uyghur state ofQocho was established with a capital in the city ofQocho.
Al-Jahiz (776–868 or 869) believed that the peaceful lifestyle that Manicheism brought to the Uyghurs was responsible for their later lack of military skills and eventual decline. This, however, is contradicted by the political and military consequences of the conversion. After the migration of the Uyghurs to Turfan in the ninth century, the nobility maintained Manichaean beliefs for a while before converting to Buddhism. Traces of Manicheism among the Uyghurs in Turfan may be detected in fragments of Uyghur Manichaean manuscripts. In fact, Manicheism continued to rival the influence of Buddhism among the Uyghurs until the 13th century. TheMongols gave the final blow to the Manichaeism among the Uyghurs.[69]
Manichaeism spread to Tibet during theTibetan Empire. There was a serious attempt made to introduce the religion to the Tibetans as the textCriteria of the Authentic Scriptures (a text attributed to the Tibetan EmperorTrisong Detsen) makes a great effort to attack Manichaeism by stating that Mani was a heretic who engaged inreligious syncretism into a deviating and inauthentic form.[70]
Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along withIslam in the Muslimcaliphates.[71] Relatively little is known about the religion during the first century of Islamic rule. During the early caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers. It had a significant appeal among Muslim society, especially among the elites. A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to theSasanians was the Manichaean gods' names. The names Mani had assigned to the gods of his religion show identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some divine beings he incorporates are non-Iranian. For example, Jesus, Adam, and Eve were named Xradesahr, Gehmurd, and Murdiyanag. Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to the Zoroastrians.[72] Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and some even became dualists.
Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the time of its introduction,Sabuhr l. As theDenkard reports, Sabuhr, the firstKing of Kings, was very well-known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind. Because of this, Mani knew that Sabuhr would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him. Mani had explicitly stated while introducing his teachings to Sabuhr, that his religion should be seen as a reform ofZarathrusta's ancient teachings.[72] This was of great fascination to the king, for it perfectly fit Sabuhr's dream of creating a large empire that incorporated all people and their different creeds. Thus, Manichaeism became widespread and flourished throughout the Sasanian Empire for thirty years. Anapologia for Manichaeism ascribed toibn al-Muqaffa' defended itsphantasmagorical cosmogony and attacked thefideism of Islam and other monotheistic religions. The Manichaeans had sufficient structure to have a head of their community.[73][74][75]
Tolerance toward Manichaeism decreased after the death of Sabuhr I. His son,Ohrmazd, who became king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest,Kirdir. After Ohrmazd's short reign, his oldest brother,Wahram I, became king. Wahram I held Kirdir in high esteem, and he also had many different religious ideals than Ohrmazd and his father, Sabuhr I. Due to the influence of Kirdir, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn caused Manichaeism to be diminished. Wahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there.[72]
that Manicheism went further on to the Arabian peninsula, up to the Hejaz and Mecca, where it could have possibly contributed to the formation of the doctrine of Islam, cannot be proven in pre-Islamic Arabia[76] and there was no existence of Manichaeism in the Hejaz.[77] Under the eighth-centuryAbbasid Caliphate, Arabiczindīq and the adjectival termzandaqa could denote many different things,[78] but it seems to have primarily—or at least initially—signified a follower of Manichaeism; however its true meaning is not known.[79] From the ninth century, it is reported that Caliphal-Ma'mun tolerated a community of Manichaeans.[80]
During the early Abbasid period, the Manichaeans underwent persecution. The third Abbasid caliph,al-Mahdi, persecuted the Manichaeans, establishing an inquisition against dualists who, if found guilty of heresy, refused to renounce their beliefs, were executed. Their persecution was ended in the 780s byHarun al-Rashid.[81][82] During the reign of the Caliphal-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled fromMesopotamia toKhorasan in fear of persecution, and the base of the religion was later shifted toSamarkand.[54][83]
The first appearance of Manichaeism in Bactria was actually during Mani's lifetime. While he never physically traveled there, he did send a disciple by the name of Mar Ammo to spread his word. Mani "called (upon) Mar Ammo, the teacher, who knew the Parthian language and script, and was well acquainted with lords and ladies and with many nobles in those places..."[84]
Mar Ammo indeed did travel to the old Parthian lands of eastern Iran, which bordered Bactria. A translation of Persian texts states the following from the perspective of Mar Ammo: "They had arrived at the watch post of Kushān (Bactria), then the spirit of the border of the eastern province appeared in the shape of a girl, and he (the spirit) asked me 'Ammo what do you intend? From where have you come?' I said, 'I am a believer, a disciple of Mani, the Apostle.' That spirit said 'I do not receive you. Return from where you have come.'"
Despite the initial rejection Mar Ammo faced, the text records that Mani's spirit appeared to Mar Ammo and requested he persevere and read the chapter "The Collecting of the Gates" fromThe Treasure of the Living. Once he did so, the spirit returned, transformed, and said, "I am Bag Ard, the frontier guard of the Eastern Province. When I receive you, then the gate of the whole East will be opened in front of you." It seemed that this "border spirit" was a reference to the local Eastern Iranian goddessArd-oxsho, who was prevalent in Bactria.[85]
Manichaeism claimed to present the complete version of teachings that were corrupted and misinterpreted by the followers of Mani's predecessorsAdam,Abraham,Noah,[9] Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus.[86] Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. Its originalEastern Middle Aramaic texts already contained stories of Jesus.
As the faith moved eastward and its scriptures were translated into Iranian languages, the names of the Manichaean deities were often transformed into the names of Zoroastrianyazatas. Thus,Abbā ḏəRabbūṯā ("The Father of Greatness"), the highest Manichaean deity of Light, inMiddle Persian texts might either be translated literally aspīd ī wuzurgīh or substituted with the name of the deityZurwān.
Similarly, the Manichaean primordial figureNāšā Qaḏmāyā ("The Original Man") was renderedOhrmazd Bay after the Zoroastrian godOhrmazd. This process continued in Manichaeism's meeting withChinese Buddhism, during which, for example, the original Aramaicקריאqaryā (the "call" from the World of Light to those seeking rescue from the World of Darkness) is identified in the Chinese-language scriptures withGuanyin (觀音 orAvalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, literally, "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", thebodhisattva of Compassion).[citation needed]
Manichaeism was repressed by theSasanian Empire.[71] In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin byBahram II and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 296, the Roman emperorDiocletian decreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean scriptures, and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed. It was not until 372 withValentinian I andValens that Manichaeism was legislated against again.[88]
Theodosius I issued a death decree for all Manichaean monks in 382 CE.[89] The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both theChristian Church and the Roman state, and the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.[54]
Conversion ofBögü Qaghan, third Khagan of theUyghur Khaganate, toManicheism in 762: detail of Bögü Qaghan in a suit of armour, kneeling to a Manichean high priest. 8th century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979)[90]
In 732,Emperor Xuanzong of Tang banned any Chinese from converting to the religion, saying it was a heretic religion, confusing people by claiming to be Buddhism. However, the foreigners who followed the religion were allowed to practice it without punishment.[91] After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, which was the chief patron of Manichaeism (which was also the state religion of the Khaganate) in China, all Manichaean temples in China except in the two capitals andTaiyuan were closed down and never reopened since these temples were viewed as a symbol of foreign arrogance by the Chinese (seeCao'an). Even those that were allowed to remain open did not for long.[64]
The Manichaean temples were attacked by Chinese people who burned the images and idols of these temples. Manichaean priests were ordered to wearhanfu instead of traditional clothing, viewed as un-Chinese. In 843,Emperor Wuzong of Tang gave the order to kill all Manichaean clerics as part of theHuichang persecution of Buddhism, and over half died. They were made to look like Buddhists by the authorities; their heads were shaved, they were made to dress likeBuddhist monks and then killed.[64]
Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song dynasty. They were quelled by Song China and were suppressed and persecuted by all successive governments before the MongolYuan dynasty. In 1370, the religion was banned through an edict of theMing dynasty, whoseHongwu Emperor had a personal dislike for the religion.[64][66][92] Its core teaching influences many religious sects in China, including theWhite Lotus movement.[93]
Manicheans also suffered persecution for some time under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. In 780, the third Abbasid Caliph,al-Mahdi, started a campaign of inquisition against those who were "dualist heretics" or "Manichaeans" called thezindīq. He appointed a "master of the heretics" (Arabic:صاحب الزنادقةṣāhib al-zanādiqa), an official whose task was to pursue and investigate suspected dualists, who the Caliph then examined. Those found guilty who refused to recant their beliefs were executed.[81]
This persecution continued under his successor, Caliphal-Hadi, and continued for some time during the reign ofHarun al-Rashid, who finally abolished it and ended it.[81] During the reign of the 18th Abbasid Caliphal-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled fromMesopotamia toKhorasan from fear of persecution by him and about 500 of them assembled inSamarkand. The base of the religion was later shifted to this city, which became their new Patriarchate.[54][83]
Manichaean pamphlets were still in circulation in Greek in 9th-centuryByzantine Constantinople, as the patriarchPhotios summarizes and discusses one that he has read by Agapius in hisBibliotheca.
During the Middle Ages, several movements emerged that were collectively described as "Manichaean" by the Catholic Church and persecuted as Christian heresies through the establishment of theInquisition in 1184.[95] They included theCathar churches of Western Europe. Other groups sometimes referred to as "neo-Manichaean" were thePaulician movement, which arose in Armenia,[96] and theBogomils in Bulgaria and Serbia.[97] An example of this usage can be found in the published edition of the Latin Cathar text, theLiber de duobus principiis (Book of the Two Principles), which was described as "Neo-Manichaean" by its publishers.[98] As there is no presence of Manichaean mythology or church terminology in the writings of these groups, there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups were descendants of Manichaeism.[99]
Manichaeism could have influenced the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars. However, these groups left few records, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous. Regardless of its accuracy, the charge of Manichaeism was leveled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to make contemporary heresies conform to those combatted by the church fathers.[97]
Whether thedualism of the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars and their belief that the world was created by a Satanicdemiurge was due to influence from Manichaeism is impossible to determine. The Cathars apparently adopted the Manichaean principles of church organization.Priscillian and his followers may also have been influenced by Manichaeism. The Manichaeans preserved manyapocryphal Christian works, such as theActs of Thomas, that would otherwise have been lost.[97]
Some sites are preserved inXinjiang,Zhejiang, andFujian inChina.[100][101] TheCao'an temple is the most widely known, and best preserved Manichaean building,[35]: 256–257 though it later became associated withBuddhism.[102] Other temples in China associated with Manichaeism also exist, such as theXuanzhen Temple, noted for its stele.
Some platforms on theinternet and social media are trying to spread some of the teachings of Manichaeism. Some people are registered in these electronic sources, and some scholars and students in the field of religious studies and the arts continue to study Manichaeism.[103]
Uyghur Manichaean clergymen, wall painting from the Khocho ruins, 10th/11th century CE. Located in the Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Humboldt Forum, Berlin.Worship of theTree of Life in the World of Light; a Manichaean picture from theBezeklik Caves
Mani's teaching dealt with the origin of evil by addressing a theoretical part of theproblem of evil: denying theomnipotence of God and instead postulating two opposite divine powers. Manichaean theology teaches adualistic view of good and evil. A fundamental belief in Manichaeism is that the powerful, thoughnot omnipotent, good power (God) was opposed by the eternal evil power (the devil). Humanity, the world, and the soul are seen as the by-product of the battle between God's proxy—Primal Man—and the devil.[104]
The human person is seen as a battleground for these powers: the soul defines the person but is influenced by light and dark. This contention plays out over the world and the human body—neither the Earth nor the flesh were seen as intrinsically evil but instead possessed both light and dark portions. Natural phenomena such as rain were seen as the physical manifestation of this spiritual contention. Therefore, the Manichaean view explained theexistence of evil by positing a flawed creation in the formation of which God took no part and which constituted instead the product of a battle by the devil against God.[104]
Manichaeism presents an elaborate conflict between the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness. The beings of both the world of darkness and the world of light have names. There are numerous sources for the details of the Manichaean belief[example needed]. These[specify] two portions of the scriptures are probably the closest thing to the original writings in their original languages that will ever be available. These are the Syriac quotation by theChurch of the East ChristianTheodore bar Konai in his 8th century Syriacscholion, theKetba de-Skolion,[46] and the Middle Persian sections of Mani'sShabuhragan discovered atTurpan—a summary of Mani's teachings prepared forShapur I.[24]
From these and other sources[example needed], it is possible to derive a near-complete description of the detailed Manichaean cosmogony.[105] (A complete list of Manichaean deities is outlined below.) According to Mani,[citation needed]the unfolding of the universe took place in three phases:
The First Creation
Originally, good and evil existed in two completely separate realms: one the World of Light (Chinese:明界), ruled by the Father of Greatness together with his fiveShekhinas (i.e., divine attributes of light), and the other the World of Darkness ruled by the King of Darkness. At a point in the distant past, the Kingdom of Darkness noticed the World of Light, coveted it, and attacked it. The Father of Greatness, in the first of three "calls" or "creations", called to the Mother of Life who sent her son, Original Man (Imperial Aramaic:Nāšā Qaḏmāyā), to battle with the attacking powers of Darkness, which included the Demon of Greed.
The Original Man was armed with five different shields of light (reflections of the fiveShekhinahs), which he lost to the forces of Darkness in the ensuing battle—described as a kind of "bait" to trick the forces of Darkness, who greedily consume as much light as they can. When the Original Man awakened, he was trapped among the forces of Darkness.
The Second Creation
Then, the Father of Greatness began the Second Creation. He called to the Living Spirit[specify], who then called to his sons and the Original Man, after whichCall became a Manichaean deity proper. An answer—Answer became another Manichaean deity—then went out from the Original Man to the World of Light. Then, the Mother of Life, the Living Spirit, and his five sons began to create the universe from the bodies of the evil beings of the World of Darkness, together with the light they had swallowed. Ten heavens and eight earths were created, all consisting of various mixtures of the evil material beings from the World of Darkness and the swallowed light. The sun, moon, and stars were all created from light recovered from the World of Darkness. The waxing and waning of the moon are described as the "moon filling with light", which passed to the sun, then through theMilky Way, and eventually back to the World of Light.
The Third Creation
Great demons (calledarchons in bar-Konai's account) were hung over the heavens, and the Father of Greatness began the Third Creation. The light was recovered from the material bodies of the male and female evil beings and demons by causing them to become sexually aroused in greed toward beautiful images of the beings of light, such as the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Light. However, as soon as the light was expelled from their bodies and fell to the earth (some in the form ofabortions—the source offallen angels in the Manichaean myth), the evil beings continued to swallow up as much of it as they could to keep the light inside themselves. This resulted eventually in the evil beings swallowing vast quantities of light, copulating, and producingAdam and Eve. The Father of Greatness then sentJesus the Splendour to awaken Adam and enlighten him to the true source of the light trapped in his material body. Adam and Eve, however, eventually copulated and produced more human beings, trapping the light in the bodies of humankind throughout human history. The appearance of the Prophet Mani was another attempt by the World of Light to reveal to humanity the true source of the spiritual light imprisoned within their material bodies.
In the sixth century, many Manichaeans saw "the earth" as "a rectangularparallelepiped enclosed by walls of crystal, above which three [sky] domes" existed, with the other two being above and larger than the first one and second one, respectively.[106] These represented the "threeheavens" inChaldean religion.[106]
Outline of the beings and events in the Manichaean mythology
Beginning with the time of its creation by Mani, the Manichaean religion has had a detailed description of deities and events that took place within the Manichaean scheme of the universe. In every language and region that Manichaeism spread to, these same deities reappear, whether it is in the original Syriac quoted by Theodore bar Konai,[46] or the Latin terminology given by Saint Augustine from Mani'sEpistola Fundamenti, or the Persian and Chinese translations found as Manichaeism spread eastward. While the original Syriac retained the original description that Mani created, the transformation of the deities through other languages and cultures produced incarnations of the gods not implied in the original Syriac writings. Chinese translations are especially syncretic, borrowing and adapting terminology common inChinese Buddhism.[107]
His sixth Son, theAnswer-God (Syriac:ܥܢܝܐʻanyā; Parthian andMiddle Persian:xroshtag;Chinese:勢至Shì Zhì "The Power of Wisdom", a Chinesebodhisattva). The answer sent by theFirst Man to theCall from the World of Light.
The Adamas of Light (Syriac:ܐܕܡܘܣ ܢܘܗܪܐadamus nuhrā;Latin:Adamas;Chinese:降魔使;pinyin:Jiàngmó shǐ). Fights with and overcomes an evil being in the image of the King of Darkness.
His sixth Son, theCall-God (Syriac:ܩܪܝܐqaryā;Middle Persian:Padvaxtag;Chinese:觀音Guanyin "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion). Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the forces of darkness.
Giants (Fallen Angels, also Abortions): (Syriac:ܝܚܛܐyaḥtē, "abortions" or "those that fell"; also:ܐܪܟܘܢܬܐ;ἘγρήγοροιEgrēgoroi, "Giants"). Related to the story of thefallen angels in theBook of Enoch (which Mani used extensively inThe Book of Giants), and theנפיליםnephilim described in Genesis (6:1–4).
The Manichaean Church was divided into the Elect, who had taken upon themselves the vows of Manichaeism, and the Hearers, those who had not, but still participated in the Church. The Elect were forbidden to consume alcohol and meat, as well as to harvest crops or prepare food, due to Mani's claim that harvesting was a form of murder against plants. The Hearers would therefore commit the sin of preparing food, and would provide it to the Elect, who would in turn pray for the Hearers and cleanse them of these sins.[110]
The terms for these divisions were already common since the days ofearly Christianity, however, it had a different meaning in Christianity. In Chinese writings, the Middle Persian and Parthian terms are transcribed phonetically (instead of being translated into Chinese).[111] These were recorded byAugustine of Hippo.[14]
The Leader (Syriac:ܟܗܢܐ/kɑhnɑ/; Parthian:yamag;Chinese:閻默;pinyin:yánmò), Mani's designated successor, seated as Patriarch at the head of the Church, originally inCtesiphon, from the ninth century inSamarkand. Two notable leaders wereMār Sīsin (or Sisinnios), the first successor of Mani, andAbū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an eighth-century leader.
12Apostles (Latin:magistrī; Syriac:ܫܠܝܚܐ/ʃ(ə)liħe/; Middle Persian:možag;Chinese:慕闍;pinyin:mùdū). Three of Mani's original apostles were Mār Pattī (Pattikios; Mani's father),Akouas andMar Ammo.
72Bishops (Latin:episcopī; Syriac:ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ/ʔappisqoppe/; Middle Persian:aspasag,aftadan;Chinese:薩波塞;pinyin:sàbōsāi orChinese:拂多誕;pinyin:fúduōdàn; see also:seventy disciples). One of Mani's original disciples who was specifically referred to as a bishop was Mār Addā.
The general body of the Elect (Latin:ēlēctī; Syriac:ܡܫܡܫܢܐ/m(ə)ʃamməʃɑne/; Middle Persian:ardawan ordēnāwar;Chinese:阿羅緩;pinyin:āluóhuǎn orChinese:電那勿;pinyin:diànnàwù)
The Hearers (Latin:audītōrēs; Syriac:ܫܡܘܥܐ/ʃɑmoʿe/; Middle Persian:niyoshagan;Chinese:耨沙喭;pinyin:nòushāyàn)
From Manichaean sources, Manichaeans observed daily prayers: four for the hearers or seven for the elect. The sources differ about the exact time of prayer. TheFihrist byal-Nadim appoints them afternoon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset, and at nightfall.Al-Biruni places the prayers at dawn, sunrise, noon, and dusk. The elect additionally prayed at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall, and midnight. Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers is probably adjusted to coincide with the public prayers for the Muslims, while Al-Biruni's report may reflect an older tradition unaffected by Islam.[112][113]
When Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers was the only detailed source available, there was a concern that Muslims only adopted these practices during theAbbasid Caliphate. However, it is clear that the Arabic text provided by Al-Nadim corresponds with the descriptions of Egyptian texts from the fourth century.[114]
Every prayer started with anablution with water or, if water was not available, with other substances comparable toablution in Islam,[115] and consisted of several blessings to the apostles and spirits. The prayer consisted of prostrating oneself to the ground and rising again twelve times during every prayer.[116] During the day, Manichaeans turned towards the Sun and during the night towards the Moon. If the Moon is not visible at night, they turned towards the north.[117]
Evident fromFaustus of Mileve,Celestial bodies are not the subject of worship themselves but are "ships" carrying the light particles of the world to thesupreme god, who cannot be seen, since he exists beyond time and space, and also the dwelling places foremanations of the supreme deity, such asJesus the Splendour.[117] According to the writings ofAugustine of Hippo, ten prayers were performed, the first devoted to the Father of Greatness, and the following to lesser deities, spirits, and angels and finally towards the elect, to be freed from rebirth and pain and to attain peace in the realm of light.[114] Comparably, in theUyghur confession, four prayers are directed to the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of the Sun and the Moon, and fivefold God and thebuddhas.[117]
Mani wrote seven books, which contained the teachings of the religion. Only scattered fragments and translations of the originals remain, most having been discovered in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th century.[33]
The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, although their Syriac names have been. There are also fragments and quotations from them. A long quotation, preserved by the eighth-centuryNestorian Christian authorTheodore Bar Konai,[46] shows that in the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani there was no influence of Iranian orZoroastrian terms. The terms for the Manichaean deities in the original Syriac writings are in Aramaic. The adaptation of Manichaeism to the Zoroastrian religion appears to have begun in Mani's lifetime however, with his writing of the Middle PersianShabuhragan, his book dedicated to theSasanian emperor,Shapur I.[24]
In it, there are mentions of Zoroastrian divinities such asAhura Mazda,Angra Mainyu, and Āz. Manichaeism is often presented as a Persian religion, mostly due to the vast number of Middle Persian, Parthian, andSogdian (as well as Turkish) texts discovered by German researchers nearTurpan in what is nowXinjiang, China, during the early 1900s. However, from the vantage point of its original Syriac descriptions (as quoted by Theodore Bar Khonai and outlined above), Manichaeism may be better described as a unique phenomenon of Aramaic Babylonia, occurring in proximity to two other new Aramaic religious phenomena,Talmudic Judaism andMandaeism, which also appeared in Babylonia in roughly the third century.[citation needed]
The original, but now lost, six sacred books of Manichaeism were composed inSyriac Aramaic, and translated into other languages to help spread the religion. As they spread to the east, the Manichaean writings passed throughMiddle Persian,Parthian,Sogdian,Tocharian, and ultimatelyUyghur andChinese translations. As they spread to the west, they were translated intoGreek,Coptic, andLatin. Most Manichaean texts survived only as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of their original, lost versions.[118]
Statue of prophet Mani as the "Buddha of Light" inCao'an Temple inJinjiang, Fujian, "a Manichaean temple in Buddhist disguise",[119] which is considered "the only extant Manichean temple in China"[120]
Henning describes how this translation process evolved and influenced the Manichaeans of Central Asia:
Beyond doubt,Sogdian was the national language of the Majority of clerics and propagandists of the Manichaean faith in Central Asia. Middle Persian (Pārsīg), and to a lesser degree, Parthian (Pahlavānīg), occupied the position held byLatin in the medieval church. The founder of Manichaeism had employed Syriac (his own language) as his medium, but conveniently he had written at least one book in Middle Persian, and it is likely that he himself had arranged for the translation of some or all of his numerous writings from Syriac into Middle Persian. Thus the Eastern Manichaeans found themselves entitled to dispense with the study of Mani's original writings, and to continue themselves to reading the Middle Persian edition; it presented small difficulty to them to acquire a good knowledge of the Middle Persian language, owing to its affinity with Sogdian.[121]
theGospel of Mani (Syriac:ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ/ʔɛwwanɡallijon/;Koinē Greek:εὐαγγέλιον "good news, gospel"). Quotations from the first chapter were brought inArabic byibn al-Nadim, who lived in Baghdad at a time when there were still Manichaeans living there, in his 938 book, theFihrist, a catalog of all written books known to him.
TheArdahang, the "Picture Book". In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani's holy books that became remembered in later Persian history, and was also calledAržang, aParthian word meaning "Worthy", and was beautified with paintings. Therefore, Iranians gave him the title of "The Painter".
Literature relating to theapostle Thomas (who by tradition went to India, and was also venerated in Syria), such as portions of the SyriacThe Acts of Thomas, and thePsalms of Thomas. TheGospel of Thomas was also attributed to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem, a fourth-century Church Father.[122]
The legend ofBarlaam and Josaphat passed from an Indian story about the Buddha, through a Manichaean version, before it transformed into the story of a Christian Saint in the west.
摩尼教文獻 The Chinese Manichaean "Compendium"Two female musicians depicted in a Manichaean text
In later centuries, as Manichaeism passed througheastern Persian-speaking lands and arrived at theUyghur Khaganate (回鶻帝國), and eventually the Uyghur kingdom ofTurpan (destroyed around 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (āfrīwan orāfurišn) and the Parthian hymn-cycles (theHuwīdagmān andAngad Rōšnan created byMar Ammo) were added to the Manichaean writings.[123] A translation of a collection of these produced theManichaean Chinese Hymnscroll (Chinese:摩尼教下部讚;pinyin:Móní-jiào Xiàbù Zàn, whichLieu translates as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e. the Hearers] of the Manichaean Religion"[124]).
In addition to containing hymns attributed to Mani, it contains prayers attributed to Mani's earliest disciples, including Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo and Mār Sīsin. Another Chinese work is a complete translation of theSermon of the LightNous, presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda.[125]
Until discoveries in the 1900s of original sources, the only sources for Manichaeism were descriptions and quotations from non-Manichaean authors, either Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, or Zoroastrian ones. While often criticizing Manichaeism, they also quoted directly from Manichaean scriptures. This enabledIsaac de Beausobre, writing in the 18th century, to create a comprehensive work on Manichaeism, relying solely on anti-Manichaean sources.[126][127] Thus quotations and descriptions in Greek and Arabic have long been known to scholars, as have the long quotations in Latin by Saint Augustine, and the extremely important quotation in Syriac byTheodore Bar Konai.[citation needed]
The error of the Manichees, which commenced at this time.
— In the mean time, also, that madman Manes, (Mani is of Persian or Semitic origin) as he was called, well agreeing with his name, for his demoniacal heresy, armed himself by the perversion of his reason, and at the instruction of Satan, to the destruction of many. He was a barbarian in his life, both in speech and conduct, but in his nature as one possessed and insane. Accordingly, he attempted to form himself into a Christ, and then also proclaimed himself to be the very paraclete and the Holy Spirit, and with all this was greatly puffed up with his madness. Then, as if he were Christ, he selected twelve disciples, the partners of his new religion, and after patching together false and ungodly doctrines, collected from a thousand heresies long since extinct, he swept them off like a deadly poison, from Persia, upon this part of the world. Hence the impious name of the Manichaeans spreading among many, even to the present day. Such then was the occasion of this knowledge, as it was falsely called, that sprouted up in these times.[128]
An example of how inaccurate some of these accounts could be can be seen in the account of the origins of Manichaeism contained in theActa Archelai. This was a Greek anti-Manichaean work written before 348, most well known in its Latin version, which was regarded as an accurate account of Manichaeism until refuted by Isaac de Beausobre in the 18th century:
In the time of the Apostles there lived a man namedScythianus, who is described as coming "from Scythia", and also as being "a Saracen by race" ("ex genere Saracenorum"). He settled in Egypt, where he became acquainted with "the wisdom of the Egyptians", and invented the religious system that was afterwards known as Manichaeism. Finally he emigrated to Palestine, and, when he died, his writings passed into the hands of his sole disciple, a certainTerebinthus. The latter betook himself to Babylonia, assumed the name of Budda, and endeavoured to propagate his master's teaching. But he, like Scythianus, gained only one disciple, who was an old woman. After a while he died, in consequence of a fall from the roof of a house, and the books that he had inherited from Scythianus became the property of the old woman, who, on her death, bequeathed them to a young man named Corbicius, who had been her slave. Corbicius thereupon changed his name to Manes, studied the writings of Scythianus, and began to teach the doctrines that they contained, with many additions of his own. He gained three disciples, named Thomas, Addas, and Hermas. About this time the son of the Persian king fell ill, and Manes undertook to cure him; the prince, however, died, whereupon Manes was thrown into prison. He succeeded in escaping, but eventually fell into the hands of the king, by whose order he was flayed, and his corpse was hung up at the city gate.
A. A. Bevan, who quoted this story, commented that it "has no claim to be considered historical".[129]
According toHegemonius' portrayal of Mani, theevil demiurge who created the world was the JewishYahweh. Hegemonius reports that Mani said,
"It is thePrince of Darkness who spoke withMoses, theJews and theirpriests. Thus theChristians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them." He goes on to state: "Now, he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests he says is thearchont of Darkness, and the Christians, Jews, and pagans (ethnic) are one and the same, as they revere the same god. For in his aspirations he seduces them, as he is not the god of truth. And so therefore all those who put their hope in the god who spoke with Moses and the prophets have (this in store for themselves, namely) to be bound with him, because they did not put their hope in the god of truth. For that one spoke with them (only) according to their own aspirations.[130]
In the early 1900s, original Manichaean writings started to come to light when German scholars led byAlbert Grünwedel, and then byAlbert von Le Coq, began excavating atGaochang, the ancient site of the Manichaean Uyghur Kingdom near Turpan, in Chinese Turkestan (destroyed around 1300 CE). While most of the writings they uncovered were in very poor condition, there were still hundreds of pages of Manichaean scriptures, written in three Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian) and old Uyghur. These writings were taken back to Germany and were analyzed and published at thePrussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, by Le Coq and others, such asFriedrich W. K. Müller andWalter Bruno Henning. While the vast majority of these writings were written in a version of the Syriac script known asManichaean script, the German researchers, perhaps for lack of suitable fonts, published most of them using theHebrew alphabet (which could easily be substituted for the 22 Syriac letters).[citation needed]
Perhaps the most comprehensive of these publications wasManichaeische Dogmatik aus chinesischen und iranischen Texten (Manichaean Dogma from Chinese and Iranian texts), byErnst Waldschmidt and Wolfgang Lentz, published in Berlin in 1933.[131] More than any other research work published before or since, this work printed, and then discussed, the original key Manichaean texts in the original scripts, and consists chiefly of sections from Chinese texts, and Middle Persian and Parthian texts transcribed with the Hebrew alphabet. After theNazi Party gained power in Germany, the Manichaean writings continued to be published during the 1930s, but the publishers no longer used Hebrew letters, instead transliterating the texts into Latin letters.[citation needed]
Additionally, in 1930, German researchers in Egypt found a large body of Manichaean works in Coptic. Though these were also damaged, hundreds of complete pages survived and, beginning in 1933, were analyzed and published in Berlin beforeWorld War II, by German scholars such asHans Jakob Polotsky.[132] Some of these Coptic Manichaean writings were lost during the war.[133]
After the success of the German researchers, French scholars visited China and discovered what is perhaps the most complete set of Manichaean writings, written in Chinese. These three Chinese writings, all found at theMogao Caves among theDunhuang manuscripts, and all written before the 9th century, are today kept in London, Paris, and Beijing. Some of the scholars involved with their initial discovery and publication wereÉdouard Chavannes,Paul Pelliot, andAurel Stein. The original studies and analyses of these writings, along with their translations, first appeared in French, English, and German, before and after World War II. The complete Chinese texts themselves were first published in Tokyo, Japan in 1927, in theTaishō Tripiṭaka, volume 54. While in the last thirty years or so they have been republished in both Germany (with a complete translation into German, alongside the 1927 Japanese edition),[134] and China, the Japanese publication remains the standard reference for the Chinese texts.[citation needed]
In Egypt, a smallcodex was found and became known through antique dealers inCairo. It was purchased by theUniversity of Cologne in 1969. Two of its scientists, Henrichs and Koenen, produced the first edition known since as theCologne Mani-Codex, which was published in four articles in theZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. The ancientpapyrus manuscript contained aGreek text describing the life of Mani. Thanks to this discovery, much more is known about the man who founded one of the most influential world religions of the past.[135]
The terms "Manichaean" and "Manichaeism" are sometimes used figuratively as a synonym of the more general term "dualist" with respect to a philosophy, outlook, or world-view.[136] The terms are often used to suggest that the worldview in question simplistically reduces historical events to a struggle between good and evil. For example,Zbigniew Brzezinski used the phrase "Manichaean paranoia" in reference to U.S. presidentGeorge W. Bush's worldview (inThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, 14 March 2007); Brzezinski elaborated that he meant "the notion that he [Bush] is leading the forces of good against the 'Axis of evil.'" Author and journalistGlenn Greenwald followed up on the theme in describing Bush in his bookA Tragic Legacy (2007).
The term is frequently used by critics to describe the attitudes and foreign policies of the United States and its leaders.[137][138][139]
PhilosopherFrantz Fanon frequently invoked the concept of Manicheanism in his discussions of violence between colonizers and the colonized.[140]
InMy Secret History, authorPaul Theroux's protagonist defines the word Manichaean for the protagonist's son as "seeing that good and evil are mingled." Before explaining the word to his son, the protagonist mentionsJoseph Conrad's short story "The Secret Sharer" at least twice in the book, the plot of which also examines the idea of the duality of good and evil.[141]
^"According to theFehrest, Mani was ofArsacid stock on both his father's and his mother's sides, at least if the readings al-ḥaskāniya (Mani's father) and al-asʿāniya (Mani's mother) are corrected to al-aškāniya and al-ašḡāniya (ed. Flügel, 1862, p. 49, ll. 2 and 3) respectively. The forefathers of Mani's father are said to have been from Hamadan and so perhaps of Iranian origin (ed. Flügel, 1862, p. 49, 5–6). TheChinese Compendium, which makes the father a local king, maintains that his mother was from the house Jinsajian, explained by Henning as the Armenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan (Henning, 1943, p. 52, n. 4 1977, II, p. 115). Is that fact, or fiction, or both? The historicity of this tradition is assumed by most, but the possibility that Mani's noble Arsacid background is legendary cannot be ruled out (cf. Scheftelowitz, 1933, pp. 403–4). In any case, it is characteristic that Mani took pride in his origin from time-honoredBabel, but never claimed affiliation to the Iranian upper class." –"Manichaeism" atEncyclopædia Iranica
^These are apparently the 'twelve centuries clothed with flowers and full of melodies' (duodecim saecula floribus convestita et canoribus plena) at St Augustine,Contra Faustum 15.5[109]
^abR. van den Broek, Wouter J. HanegraaffGnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern TimesSUNY Press, 1998ISBN978-0-7914-3611-0 p. 37
^Yarshater, EhsanThe Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (2), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
^"Manichaeism". New Advent Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved4 October 2013.
^Corrigan, Kevin; Rasimus, Tuomas (2013).Gnosticism, Platonism and the late ancient world: essays in honour of John D. Turner. Nag Hammadi and Manichaean studies. Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-22383-7.
^Widengren, GeoMesopotamian elements in Manichaeism (King and Saviour II): Studies in Manichaean, Mandaean, and Syrian-gnostic religion, Lundequistska bokhandeln, 1946.
^Hopkins, Keith (July 2001).A World Full of Gods: The Strange Triumph of Christianity. New York:Plume. pp. 246, 263, 270.ISBN0-452-28261-6.OCLC47286228.
^Mary Boyce,Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices, Routledge, 2001. p. 111: "He was Iranian, of noble Parthian blood ..."
^Warwick Ball,Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire, Routledge, 2001. p. 437: "Manichaeism was a syncretic religion, proclaimed by the Iranian Prophet Mani ...
^abL. Koenen and C. Römer, eds.,Der Kölner Mani-Kodex. Über das Werden seines Leibes. Kritische Edition, (Abhandlung der Reinisch-Westfälischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Papyrologica Coloniensia14) (Opladen, Germany) 1988.
^Sundermann, Werner (20 July 2009)."MANI".Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.Archived from the original on 14 October 2023. Retrieved2 March 2023.
^abcMiddle Persian Sources: D. N. MacKenzie,Mani's Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34, pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310.
^van Oort, Johannes (2020). "The Paraclete Mani as the Apostle of Jesus Christ and the Origins of a New Church".Mani and Augustine. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill.
^Stroumsa, Guy G. (2015).The Making of the Abrahamic Religions in Late Antiquity. Oxford:Oxford University Press. p. 95.
^C. Colpe, "Das Siegel der Propheten: historische Beziehungen zwischen Judentum, Judenchristentum, Heidentum und frühem Islam",Arbeiten zur neutestamentlichen Theologie und Zeitgeschichte, 3 (Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 1990), 227–243.
^G. G. Stroumsa,The Making of the Abrahamic Religions in Late Antiquity, Oxford Studies in the Abrahamic Religions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 68.
^J. T. Milik, ed. and trans.,The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976.
^abIn: Henning, W. B.,The Book of Giants, BSOAS, Vol. XI, Part 1, 1943, pp. 52–74.
^Reeves, John C.Jewish Lore in Manichaean Cosmogony: Studies in the Book of Giants Traditions (1992)
^See Henning,A Sogdian Fragment of the Manichaean Cosmogony, BSOAS, 1948
^abcdOriginal Syriac in: Theodorus bar Konai,Liber Scholiorum, II, ed. A. Scher,Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium scrip. syri, 1912, pp. 311–8,ISBN978-90-429-0104-9; English translation in: A.V.W. Jackson,Researches in Manichaeism, New York, 1932, pp. 222–54.
^Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1993).Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic texts from Central Asia (1st ed.). San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco.ISBN0-06-064586-5.OCLC28067600.
^Scott, David (2007). "Manichaeism in Bactria: Political Patterns & East-West Paradigms".Journal of Asian History.41 (2):107–130.ISSN0021-910X.JSTOR41933456.
^Rong, Xinjian (24 October 2022). "Gaochang in the Second Half of the 5th Century and Its Relations with the Rouran Qaghanate and the Kingdoms of the Western Regions".The Silk Road and Cultural Exchanges between East and West. Brill. pp. 577–578.doi:10.1163/9789004512597_006.ISBN978-90-04-51259-7.
^Stroumsa, Gedaliahu G., "Anti-Cathar Polemics and the Liber de duobus principiis", in B. Lewis and F. Niewöhner, eds.,Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter (Wolfenbütteler Mittelalter-Studien, 4; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992), 169–183, p. 170
^abcRunciman, Steven,The Medieval Manichee: a study of the Christian dualist heresy. Cambridge University Press, 1947.
^Dondaine, Antoine. O. P.Un traite neo-manicheen du XIIIe siecle: Le Liber de duobus principiis, suivi d'un fragment de rituel Cathare (Rome: Institutum Historicum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 1939)
^明教在温州的最后遗存 – 温州社会研究所 [The Last Remains of Mingjiao in Wenzhou – Wenzhou Institute of Social Research] (in Chinese). 25 August 2013. Archived fromthe original on 25 August 2013.
^崇寿宫记.Cxsz.cixi.gov.cn. 8 October 2012. Archived fromthe original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved14 February 2014.
^Hajianfard, Ramin (2016).Mani and the Foundation of Manichaeism: Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religion History. Santa Barbara: CA, ABC-CLIO. p. 193.ISBN978-1-61069-566-4.ISBN978-1-61069-566-4.
^G. Haloun and W. B. Henning,The Compendium of the Doctrines and Styles of the Teaching of Mani, the Buddha of Light, Asia Major, 1952, pp. 184–212, p. 195.
^J. van (Johannes) Oort, Jacob Albert van den BergIn Search of Truth. Augustine, Manichaeism and Other Gnosticism: Studies for Johannes Van Oort at Sixty BRILL, 2011ISBN978-90-04-18997-3 p. 258
^Jason BeDuhnNew Light on Manichaeism: Papers from the Sixth International Congress on Manichaeism, Organized by the International Association of Manichaean Studies BRILL, 2009ISBN978-90-04-17285-2 p. 77
^abJohannes van OortAugustine and Manichaean Christianity: Selected Papers from the First South African Conference on Augustine of Hippo, University of Pretoria, 24–26 April 2012 BRILL, 01.08.2013ISBN978-90-04-25506-7 p. 74
^Charles George HerbermannThe Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church, Band 9 Universal Knowledge Foundation, 1913 Digit. 16. Aug. 2006 p. 594
^New Light on Manichaeism: Papers from the Sixth International Congress o p. 78
^abcJohannes van OortAugustine and Manichaean Christianity: Selected Papers from the First South African Conference on Augustine of Hippo, University of Pretoria, 24–26 April 2012 BRILL, 01.08.2013ISBN978-90-04-25506-7 p. 75
^"Let none read the gospel according to Thomas, for it is the work, not of one of the twelve apostles, but of one ofMani's three wicked disciples."—Cyril of Jerusalem,Catechesis V (4th century)
^See, for example,Boyce, Mary (1954).The Manichaean hymn-cycles in Parthian. London Oriental Series. Vol. 3. London:Oxford University Press.
^"The Traité is, despite its title (Moni jiao cao jing, lit. "fragmentary [Mathews, no. 6689] Manichean scripture"), a long text in an excellent state of preservation, with only a few lines missing at the beginning. It was first fully published with a facsimile byEdouard Chavannes (q.v.) andPaul Pelliot in 1911 and is frequently known as Traité Pelliot. Their transcription (including typographical errors) was reproduced in the Chinese translation of theBuddhist Tripiṭaka (Taishō, no. 2141 B, LIV, pp. 1281a16-1286a29); that text was in turn reproduced with critical notes by Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (1987b, pp. T. 81–86). A more accurate transcription was published by Chen Yuan in 1923 (pp. 531–44), and a new collation based on a reexamination of the original photographs of the manuscript has now been published by Lin Wu-shu (1987, pp. 217–29), with the photographs","Chinese Turkestan vii. Manicheism in Chinese Turkestan and China" atEncyclopædia Iranica
^de Beausobre, Isaac (1734).Histoire critique de Manichée et du manichéisme [Critical history of Manichae and Manichaeism] (in French). Vol. 1. Amsterdam: J. Frederic Bernard.Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved6 December 2018.
^Beausobre, Isaac de; Formey, S. (1739).Histoire critique de Manichée et du manichéisme [Critical history of Manichae and Manichaeism] (in French). Vol. 2. Amsterdam: J. Frederic Bernard.Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved6 December 2018.
^Eusebius.The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea, Translated from the originals by Christian Frederick Cruse.1939. Ch. XXXI.
^Bevan, A. A. (1930). "Manichaeism".Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Volume VIII. Ed.James Hastings. London.
^Waldschmidt, E., and Lentz, W.,Manichäische Dogmatik aus chinesischen und iranischen Texten (SPAW 1933, No. 13)
^Hans Jakob Polotsky and Karl Schmidt,Ein Mani-Fund in Ägypten, Original-Schriften des Mani und seiner Schüler. Berlin: Akademie der Wissenschaften 1933.
^"Manichaean – definition ofManichaean in English".Manichaean.The Oxford Dictionaries. Archived fromthe original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved31 July 2011.
Baker-Brian, Nicholas J. (2011).Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered. London and New York. T&T Clark.
Beatty, Alfred Chester (1938). Charles Allberry (ed.).A Manichean Psalm-Book, Part II. Stuttgart.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Gardner, Iain (2020).The Founder of Manichaeism. Rethinking the Lives of Mani. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Giversen, Soren (1988).The Manichaean Coptic Papyri in The Chester Beatty Library Vol. III: Psalm Book part I. (Facsimile ed.). Geneva: Patrick Crammer. (Cahiers D'Orientalism XVI) 1988a
Giversen, Soren (1988).The Manichaean Coptic Papyri in The Chester Beatty LibraryVol. IV: Psalm Book part II (Facsimile ed.). Geneva: Patrick Crammer. (Cahiers D'Orientalism XVI) 1988b.
Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2001).Manichaean art in Berlin Collections. Turnhout.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (Original Manichaean manuscripts found since 1902 in China, Egypt, Turkestan to be seen in the Museum of Indian Art in Berlin.)
Heinrichs, Albert; Ludwig Koenen,Ein griechischer Mani-Kodex, 1970 (ed.)Der Kölner Mani-Codex ( P. Colon. Inv. nr. 4780), 1975–1982.
Ibscher, Hugo (1938).Allberry Charles R. C. (ed.).Manichaean Manuscripts in the Chester Beatty Collection: Vol II, part II: A Manichaean Psalm Book. Stuttgart: W. Kohlammer.
D. N. MacKenzie,Mani's Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34,[1][usurped] pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310[2][usurped].
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