| Mandukya | |
|---|---|
 Mandukya Upanisad verses 1 to 3 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script) | |
| Devanagari | माण्डूक्य |
| IAST | Māṇḍūkya |
| Type | Mukhya Upanishad |
| LinkedVeda | Atharvaveda |
| Verses | 12 |
| Commented by | Gaudapada,Adi Shankara,Madhvacharya |
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TheMandukya Upanishad (Sanskrit:माण्डूक्योपनिषद्,IAST:Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad) is the shortest of all theUpanishads, and is assigned toAtharvaveda.[1] It is listed as number 6 in theMuktikā canon of 108 Upanishads.[2]
It is in prose, consisting of twelve short verses, and is associated with a Rig Vedic school of scholars.[1] It discusses the syllableAum; addsturiya to the three states of consciousness; and asserts thatAum isBrahman – which is the Whole – and thatBrahman is this self (ātman).[3][4]
The Mandukya Upanishad is recommended in the Muktikā Upanishad, in a dialogue between two of the most important characters of theRamayana, Rama and Hanuman, as the one Upanishad that alone is sufficient for knowledge to gainmoksha, and as sixth in its list of ten principal Upanishads.[2] The text is also notable for inspiringGaudapada's Mandukya Karika a classic for theVedanta school of Hinduism.[2] The Mandukya Upanishad is among the often cited texts on chronology and the philosophical relationship between Hinduism andBuddhism.[5][6]
The root ofMandukya is sometimes considered asManduka (Sanskrit: मण्डूक) which has several meanings. Some of its meanings include "frog", "a particular breed of horse", "the sole of horse's hoof", or, "Spiritual distress"[7] Some writers[8] have suggested that "frog" is the etymological root for Mandukya Upanishad.
Another root for the Upanishad's name isMānduka (Sanskrit: माण्डूक) which literally is "a Vedic school" or means "a teacher".[9]Paul Deussen states the etymological roots of Mandukya Upanishad to be a "half lost school ofRigveda".[1] This school may be related to the scholar named Hrasva Māṇḍūkeya, whose theory of semivowels is discussed in Aitareya Aranyaka of Rigveda.[10]
Applying the rules ofsandhi, the text is also calledMandukyopanishad.[11]
The chronology of Mandukya Upanishad, like that of other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested.[12] The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.[12][13]
Several academics have dated the Mandukya Upanishad to the early centuries of theCommon Era. The Japanese scholar of Vedic, Hindu and Buddhist scriptures,Hajime Nakamura, dated the Mandukya Upanishad to "about the first or second centuries A.D."[14] The scholar of South Asian religions,Richard E. King too dated the Mandukya Upanishad at the first two centuries of the Common Era.[15] Indologist and Sanskrit scholarPatrick Olivelle states, "we have the two late prose Upanisads, the Prasna and the Mandukya, which cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era".[16]
Mahony, (writing for the MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion) on the other hand, states that Mandukya Upanishad probably emerged in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BCE, along withPrashna and Maitri Upanishads.[17] Phillips lists Mandukya Upanishad before and about the time the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Maitri Upanishad, as well as the first Buddhist Pali and Jaina canonical texts were composed.[12]R D Ranade[18] posits a view similar to Phillips, placing Mandukya's chronological composition in the fifth, that is the last group of ancient Principal Upanishads.
The text of theMandukya Upanishad is fully incorporated in theMandukya Karika, a commentary attributed to the 6th century CE[19]Gaudapada, and is not known to exist independent of this commentary.[11] Isaeva states that some scholars, including Paul Deussen, presumed that Gaudapada may be its author; however, there is no historical or textual evidence for this hypothesis.[11] Scholars consider Mandukya Upanishad as a Principal Upanishad with more ancient origins.[12][13]
In contrast to the older Upanishads, the Mandukya Upanishad is very short, with clear and concise formulations.[20][21] It has twelve short prose paragraphs.[4]
The Mandukya Upanishad is an important Upanishad in Hinduism, particularly to itsAdvaita Vedanta school.[22][23] It succinctly presents several central doctrines, namely that "the universe is Brahman," "the Self (Atma) exists and is Brahman," and "the four states of consciousness".[22][24][25] The Mandukya Upanishad also presents several theories about the syllable Aum, and that it symbolizes self.[22][4]
The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Aum!, this syllable is this whole world". Thereafter it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.[4] This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived fromA +U +M + "silence" (or without an element[26]).[3][4]
Aum as all states of time
In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are "Aum". The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is "Aum" expressed.[4]
Aum as all states of Atman
In verse 2, states the Upanishad, "thisbrahman is the Whole.Brahman is this self (ātman); that [brahman] is this self (ātman), consisting of four corners."[27][3]
Aum as all states of consciousness
In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep and the state ofekatma (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).[4] These four areA +U +M + "without an element" respectively.[4]
Aum as all of etymological knowledge
In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable "Aum". It states that the first element of "Aum" isA, which is fromApti (obtaining, reaching) or fromAdimatva (being first).[3] The second element isU, which is fromUtkarsa (exaltation) or fromUbhayatva (intermediateness).[4] The third element isM, fromMiti (erecting, constructing) or fromMi Minati, or apīti (annihilation).[3] The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Aum is the Atman (the self) indeed.[3][4]
The Mandukya Upanishad describes three states of consciousness, namelywaking (jågrat), dreaming (svapna), and deep sleep (suṣupti),[web 1][web 2] and 'the fourth', beyond and underlying these three states:
According to Raju, the idea of four states of Atman as awake, dream-filled sleep, deep sleep, and the "original pure state" is "anticipated in chapters 8.7 through 8.12 ofChandogya Upanishad.[30][31]
The verses 3 through 7 discuss four states of Atman (Self).[3][4]
Verse 3 of the Upanishad describes the first state of Self as outwardly cognitive with seven limbs,[32] nineteen mouths,[33] enjoying the gross,[34] a state of Self common in all of human beings.[3][4]
The Mandukya Upanishad, in verse 4, asserts the second state of Self as inwardly cognitive with seven limbs, nineteen mouths, enjoying the exquisite, a state of brilliant Self.[3][4]
The Upanishad's verse 5 states the third state of Self as one without desire or anticipations, where pure conscience is his only mouth, where he is in unified cognition, enjoying the delight, a state of blissful Self.[3][4]
The verses 6 and 7 of the Upanishad states the fourth state of Self as one beyond all the three, beyond extrospective state, beyond introspective state, beyond cognitive state, the state ofekatmya pratyaya sara (one with the Self), tranquil, benign,advaita (without second). He then is the Self, just Atman, the one which should be discerned.[3][4]
Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.[35]
Scholars contest whether Mandukya Upanishad was influenced by Buddhist theories along with the similarities and differences between Buddhism and Hinduism in light of the text. According toHajime Nakamura, theMandukya Upanishad was influenced byMahayana Buddhism and its concept ofśūnyatā.[5] Nakamura states, "many particular Buddhist terms or uniquely Buddhist modes of expression may be found in it",[36][note 1] such asadrsta,avyavaharya,agrahya,alaksana,acintya,prapancopasama.[38] According to Randall Collins the Mandukya Upanishad "includes phrases found in the Prajnaparamitrasutras of Mahayana Buddhism."[39]
According to Michael Comans, Vidushekhara also notes that the termprapañcopaśama does not appear in pre-Buddhist Brahmanic works, but in contrast to Nakamura he does not conclude that the term was taken over from Mahayana Buddhism.[6] According to Comans, eventual Mahayana origins of this term are no more than a possibility, and not a certainty.[6]
Comans also disagrees with Nakamura's thesis that "the fourth realm (caturtha) was perhaps influenced by theSunyata of Mahayana Buddhism."[note 2] According to Comans,
It is impossible to see how the unequivocal teaching of a permanent, underlying reality, which is explicitly called the "Self", could show early Mahayana influence.[40]
Comans further refers to Nakamura himself, who notes that later Mahayana sutras such as theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the concept ofBuddha-nature, were influenced by Vedantic thought.[40] Comans concludes that
[T]here can be no suggestion that the teaching about the underlying Self as contained in theMandukya contains shows any trace of Buddhist thought, as this teaching can be traced to the pre-BuddhistBrhadaranyaka Upanishad.[40]
Jacobs listsadrsta and other terms in more ancient, pre-Buddhist literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[41]
Isaeva states that there are differences in the teachings in the texts of Buddhism and the Mandukya Upanishad of Hinduism, because the latter asserts thatcitta "consciousness" is identical with the eternal and immutable atman "Self" of the Upanishads.[42] In other words, Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapada affirm the Self exists, while Buddhist schools affirm that there is no soul or self.[4][43][44]
Rama andHanuman of the Hindu EpicRamayana, inMuktika Upanishad, discussmoksha (freedom, liberation, deliverance).Rama, therein, recommends Mandukya as first among 108 Upanishads, as follows,[2]
The Mandukya alone is sufficient
for the deliverance of the aspirant,
if even then, the knowledge lacks,
then read the ten Upanishads.
He attains the goal
if he reads the thirty two Upanishads,
if you just wish deliverance, while death is near,
read, then, the hundred and eight Upanishads.
— Muktika Upanishad I.i.26-29, Translated by Paul Deussen[2]
The oldest known extant metrical commentary on this Upanishad was written byGaudapada, This commentary, called theMāndūkya-kārikā, is the earliest known systematic exposition ofAdvaita Vedanta.
Raju states that Gaudapada took over the Buddhist doctrines thatultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijñapti-mātra),[45][note 3] and "the four-cornered negation" (चतुष्कोटि विनिर्मुक्तः).[45][note 4] Raju further states that Gaudapada "weaved [both doctrines] into a philosophy of theMandukaya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara".[49][note 5] Other scholars such as Murti state, that while there is shared terminology, the doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally different.[51][note 6]
Adi Shankara, a disciple ofGovinda Bhagavatpada who himself was either a direct or a distant disciple ofGaudapada,[53] further made commentaries on Gaudapada Mandukya karika. Mandukya Upanishad forms one of the basis ofAdvaita Vedanta as expounded by Adi Shankara.[54]
Madhvacharya, the propounder ofDvaita Vedanta, wrote commentaries on Mandukya Upanishad. He presents atheistic and emotional perspective on the scripture, attributing his insights toŚruti. His commentary emphasizesbhakti yoga and usesVishnu and his attributes as similes to elucidate the verses of the Mandukya Upanishad.[55]
Swami Rama has provided an interpretation of this Upanishad from the experiential standpoint in his commentaryEnlightenment without God.[56]
Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade calls the aphoristic style of Mandukya Upanishad as highly influential on theSutras of Indian philosophies that followed it, and that the Upanishad has served as a foundational text of the majorVedanta school of Hinduism. He states,[57]
We are told [in Mandukya Upanishad] how, "the syllable Om is verily all that exists. Under it is included all the past, the present and the future, as well as that which transcends time. Verily all this is Brahman. The Atman is Brahman. This Atman is four-footed. The first foot is the Vaisvanara, who enjoys gross things, in the state of wakefulness. The second foot is the Taijasa, who enjoys exquisite things in the state of dream. The third is the Prajna who enjoys bliss in the state of deep sleep. The fourth is Atman, who is alone without a second, calm, holy and tranquil". This passage has been verily the basis upon which all the later systems ofVedantic philosophy have come to be built.
— RD Ranade[57]
Ranade's views on the importance of Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapada's commentary on Vedanta school, particularly Advaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is shared by modern era scholars such as Hacker, Vetter and others.[58]
Johnston states that Mandukya Upanishad must be read in two layers, consciousness and vehicles of consciousness, Self and nature of Self, the empirical and the eternal.[35] The text aphoristically condenses these layers of message, both in literal and metaphorical sense.
William Butler Yeats, the Irish poet, was inspired by the Upanishads and Mandukya Upanishad was among the texts he commented on.[59][60]
David Stoll's 1987 Piano Quartet is inspired by three Upanishads, one being Mandukya Upanishad, other two being Katha and Isha Upanishads.[61]
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