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| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
 Mali | Unknown |
 Guinea | Unknown |
 Senegal | Unknown |
 Côte d'Ivoire | Unknown |
 Burkina Faso | Unknown |
 Sierra Leone | Unknown |
 Liberia | Unknown |
 Mauritania | Unknown |
 The Gambia | Unknown |
| Languages | |
| Mande languages | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyIslam, traditional African religions | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Fula,Songhai,Wolof,Hausa,Gur | |
TheMandé peoples are alinguistic grouping of thoseAfrican nations who speakMande languages. They are not a coherent ethnic or cultural group. The various Mandé-speaking nations are concentrated in the western regions ofWest Africa.
TheMandinka or Malinke, a western Mandé nation, are credited with the founding one of the largestWest African empires. Other large Mandé-speaking nations include theSoninke andSusu, as well as smaller ones such as theLigbi,Vai, andBissa. Mandé-speaking peoples inhabit various environments, from coastalrainforests to the sparseSahel, and have a wide range of cuisines, cultures, and beliefs.
After migrating from the CentralSahara, Mandé-speaking peoples establishedTichitt culture in the Western Saharan region ofMauritania, which hadDhar Tichitt as its primary regional center and possibly theMalian Lakes Region as its secondary regional center. Subsequently, toward the end of the Mauritanian Tichitt culture, Mandé-speaking peoples began to spread and establishedMéma,Macina,Dia Shoma, andJenne Jeno in theMiddle Niger region as well as theGhana Empire.
Today, Mandé-speaking peoples are predominantlyMuslim and follow a caste system.Islam has played a central role in identifying the Mandé-speaking people who live in theSahel regions. Influences from Mandé-speaking people have historically spread far beyond immediate areas to other neighboring Muslim West African groups who inhabited theSahel andSavanna. The Mandé people conducted increased trade along theNiger River or overland, and achieved military conquest with the expansion of the Ghana Empire,Mali Empire,Kaabu andWassoulou states.
The non-Mandé-speakingFula,Songhai,Wolof,Hausa, andVoltaic peoples share a similar culture with Mandé-speaking peoples.[citation needed]
After theKel Essuf Period andRound Head Period of the Central Sahara, thePastoral Period followed.[1] Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not.[2] As a result of increasingaridification of theGreen Sahara, Central Saharanhunter-gatherers and cattleherders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to theNiger River andChad Basin of West Africa.[3] In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid thePastoral Period of theSahara.[4] Saharanpastoral culture was intricate, as evidenced by fields oftumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants.[5] By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions.[4] The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticatedhierarchies found in African settlements, such asDhar Tichitt.[4]
After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto-Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara.[6][7] TheTichitt Tradition of southeasternMauritania dates from 2200 BCE[8][9] to 200 BCE.[10][11] Tichitt culture atDhar Néma,Dhar Tagant,Dhar Tichitt, andDhar Walata included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure,farming ofcereals,metallurgy, numerousfunerary tombs, and arock art tradition.[12] At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata,pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid theNeolithic.[13] Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition,[14] and theMalian Lakes Region, which includesTondidarou, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition.[15] Theurban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale,complexly organized society inWest Africa,[7][16] and an earlycivilization of theSahara,[8][6] which may have served as the segue forstate formation in West Africa.[5]
As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma.[16] Farming of crops (e.g.,millet) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt.[16]
As part a broader trend of iron metallurgy in the West African Sahel in 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found atDia Shoma and Walaldé, and iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai.[16] The iron materials found are evidence of metalworking at Dhar Tagant.[11] In the late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used totemper thetuyeres of an oval-shaped low shaft iron furnace, one of 16 located on elevated ground.[10]Iron metallurgy may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.[10] At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt,copper was also utilized.[7]
After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt Tradition spread to theMiddle Niger region ofMali (e.g., atMéma,Macina,Dia Shoma, andJenne Jeno), where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE amongrammed earth architecture and iron metallurgy (which developed after 900 BCE).[17] Thereafter, theGhana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE.[17]
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The civilization ofDjenné-Djenno was located in theNiger River valley inMali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centres and the best-known archaeological sites inSub-Saharan Africa. The site is located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the modern town ofDjenné and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres). The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved to its current location due to the spread ofIslam and the building of theGreat Mosque of Djenné. Towns similar to Djenné-Jeno also developed at the site ofDia, also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC.[18] Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found betweenRound Head paintings and modernSub-Saharan African cultures.[19] Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with the oldest ceramics found inDjenné-Djenno, which have been dated to 250 BCE.[19] Theegalitariancivilization of Djenné-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of theBozo people, which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE.[20]
Since around 1500 BCE, a number of clans of proto-Soninke descent, one of the oldest branches of Mandé-speaking peoples, came together under the leadership ofDinga Cisse. The nation comprised a confederation of three independent, freely allied, states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. Located midway between the desert, the main source of salt, and the gold fields of the upperSenegal River to the south, the confederation had a good location to take advantage of trade with the surrounding cities. They traded with the north by a coastal route leading toMorocco viaSijilmasa.
Ghanaian society included large pastoral and agricultural communities. Its commercial class was the most prosperous. The Soninke merchants ofGhana came to dominate the trade, having had Saharan trade routes connecting their great cities of the Sahara and to the northern coast of Africa. They enslaved neighboring Africans, either to sell them or to use them for domestic purposes; those who were not sold were usually assimilated into the Soninke community. Leather goods, ivory, salt, gold, and copper were also sold in exchange for various finished goods. By the 10th century, Ghana was an immensely rich and prosperous empire, controlling an area the size ofTexas, stretching across Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. When visiting the capital city ofKumbi Saleh in 950 AD, Arab travelerIbn Hawqal described the Ghanaian ruler as the "richest king in the world because of his gold."
In the 11th century, the kingdom began to weaken and decline for numerous reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly, a devastating drought damaged the cattle and cultivation industries, the clans were fractured, and the vassal states were rebelling. According to Arab tradition,AlmoravidMuslims came from the North and invaded Ghana.
The western Sanhaja was converted toIslam sometime in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century. With the zeal of converts, they launched several campaigns against the "Sudanese", idolatrous Black peoples of West Africa and the Sahel.[21] Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected or captured the citadel ofAwdaghust, a critical stop on thetrans-Saharan trade route. After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust was taken by theGhana empire. The trans-Saharan routes were taken over by theZenataMaghrawa ofSijilmassa
Before the Almoravids, the Islamic influence was gradual and did not involve any form of military takeover. In any event, following their subsequent withdrawal, new gold fields were mined further south and new trade routes were opening further east. Just as it appeared that Ghana would reemerge, it became the target of attacks by the Susu people who wereMandinka (another Mandé-speaking people) and their leader Sumanguru. From this conflict in 1235, the Malinké (also known asMandinka people) emerged under a new dynamic ruler,Sundiata Kéita. By the mid-13th century, the once great empire of Ghana had utterly disintegrated. It soon became eclipsed by theMali Empire of Sundiata.
The most renowned Emperor of Mali was Sundiata's grandson,Mansa Musa (1307–1332), also known as “Kan Kan Mussa" or "The Lion of Mali". His pilgrimage toMecca in 1324 quite literally put Mali on the European map. He took 60,000 porters with him, each carrying 3 kg of pure gold (180 tons in total, according to theUNESCOGeneral History of Africa).[22] He had so much gold that when he stopped inEgypt, the Egyptian currency lost some of its value. According to Cairo-born historian al-Maqurizi, "the members of his entourage proceeded to buyTurkish and 'Ethiopian' slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams." Consequently, the names of Mali andTimbuktu were shown on the 14th-century world map.
In the 12th century CE, theUniversity of Sankore, which began as theMosque of Sankore, served as anorganization of higher learning inTimbuktu.[23][24] The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque ofSidi Yahya, and the Mosque ofDjinguereber constitute what is referred to as theUniversity of Timbuktu.[23][24]
In a number of generations, Mali was eclipsed by the Songhai empire ofAskia Muhammad I (Askia the Great).[citation needed]
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Following the fall of the great Empires of the Northern Mandé-speaking people (Mandinka and Soninke ethnic groups), the presence of other Mandé-speaking people came about. These were theMane, Southern Mandé speakers (Mende,Gbandi,Kpelle,Loma ethnic groups) who invaded the western coast of Africa from the east during the first half of the 16th century. Their origin was apparent in their dress and weapons (which were observed at the time by Europeans), their language, as well as in Mane tradition, recorded about 1625. TheMane advanced parallel to the coastline of modernLiberia, fighting in turn with eachtribal group that they came across. They were almost invariably successful. They did not slow until encountering the Susu, another Mande people, in the north-west of what is nowSierra Leone. The Susu had similar weapons, military organization and tactics.[citation needed]
Paintedrock art fromManding peoples are found largely inMali, whereMalinke andBambara peoples reside.[25] The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g.,saurian) and human artforms.[25] Some of the Manding rock art may relate tocircumcision rituals for initiates.[25] During the 15th century CE, migrations from the northern area ofGuinea and southern area ofMali may have resulted in the creation of Manding rock art in the northern area of Mali (e.g., Yobri, Nabruk), southeastern area ofBurkina Faso (e.g., Takoutala, Sourkoundingueye), andDogon country.[25]
French colonisation of West Africa greatly affected the life of Mandé-speaking people. Constant wars with the French cost the lives of thousands of their soldiers. They relied increasingly on theAtlantic slave trade for revenues. The later creation of colonial boundaries by European powers divided the population. The Mandé-speaking people are still active in West African politics; Many individuals from Mandé-speaking ethnic groups have been elected as presidents in several states.[citation needed]
Existence amongst the Mandé-speaking peoples concerning conflict with other African ethnic groups has been exacerbated since the start of the 20th century. Because ofdesertification, they have been forced steadily southward in search of work and other resources. Frequently, the competition has resulted in fighting between them and other indigenous populations along the coast.[citation needed]
Mandé-speaking ethnic groups typically havepatrilineal kinship system andpatriarchal society. Several Mandé tribes practice Islam, like theMandinka andSoninke (though often mixed with indigenous beliefs), and usually observe ritual washing and the daily prayers of Islam. Their women wearveils. The Mandinka in particular practice the social concept ofsanankuya or "joking relationship" among clans.
Amongst theMende,Kpelle,Gbandi andLoma Mandé-speaking ethnic groups of Sierra Leone and Liberia, there exists secret fraternal orders and sororities, known asPoro andSande, orBundu, respectively based on ancient traditions believed to have emerged about 1000 CE. These govern the internal order of their society, with important rites of passage and entry into the gender societies as boys and girls come of age in puberty.
Amongst specific Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as theMandinka,Soninke andSusu, there traditionally exists a caste-based system. Amongst these Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' societies are hierarchies or"caste"-based systems, withnobility and vassals. There were also serfs (Jonw/Jong(o)), often prisoners or captives taken in warfare, and usually from competitors of their territory. The descendants of former kings and generals had a higher status than both their nomadic and more settled compatriots.
Many Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures traditionally have castes of crafts people (including as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, and woodworkers/woodcarvers) and bards (the latter being known in several European languages asgriots). These craft and bardic castes are collectively called "nyamakala" among peoples ofManding branch of the Mandé-speaking family (Mandinka people),[26][27] and "Nyaxamalo" among theSoninke people,[26][28]
Mandé-influenced caste systems, and elements thereof, sometimes spread, due to Mande influences, to non-Mandé-speaking ethnic groups (in and near regions where Mande cultures settled) and were adopted by certain non-Mande peoples of Senegal, parts of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, and elsewhere theWestern Sudan and WesternSahel regions of West Africa. Among the non-MandeWolof people, craft and bardic castes were collectively termed "nyeno".[29]
With time, in many cases, status differences have eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the groups. Although the Mandé arrived in many of their present locations as raiders or traders, they gradually adapted to their regions. In the 21st century, most work either as settled agriculturalists or nomadic fishermen. Some are skilled asblacksmiths,cattle herders, andgriots or bards.
Fadenya or “father-childness” is a word used by the Manding, a Mandé-speaking people (e.g., Mandinka), originally to describe the tensions between half-brothers with the same father and different mothers.[30] The concept offadenya has been stretched and is often used to describe the political and social dynamism of the Mandé world.Fadenya is often discussed in contrast tobadenya, or mother-childness.[31]
Amongst the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures, history is passed orally, one famous instance being theEpic of Sundiata of the Mandinka. Among the Mandinka, and some closely related groups, teaching centers known askumayoro teach the oral histories and techniques under keepers of tradition known asnyamankala. Thesenyamankala form an important part ofMandinka culture due to their role in preserving oral tradition.[32] Kela school, the most notable, is vital in perpetuating oral tradition. Because of their strong work, the versions of the Sundiata epic tend to be fairly similar. The Kela version is considered the official one, and the epic is performed every seven years. The Kela version includes a written document called atariku. This intersection of written and oral history is unique toMandinka culture.[32]
The epic is typically performed in two ways: one is intended for teaching or rehearsing, and the other is more official, intended to convey the important information to a large audience. Part of the teaching performance involves the presentation of gifts from clans involved in the epic. The official version can use a musical instrument; it does not allow audience interruptions. Different Mandé clans play different instruments in their performances of the epic.
The Kandasi also started a school for oral history.[32]
Mandé literature includes theEpic of Sundiata, anepic poem of theManding peoples (a branch of Mande family) recounting the rise ofSundiata Keita, the founder of theMali Empire.[33]Ethnomusicologist Eric Charry notes that these tales "form a vast body oforal and written literature" ranging fromIbn Khaldun's 14th-centuryArabic-language account to French colonial anthologies collecting local oral histories to modern recordings, transcriptions, translations, and performance.[33]Tarikh al-Fattash andTarikh al-Sudan are two importantTimbuktu chronicles.[34] By the late 1990s, there were reportedly 64 published versions of the Epic of Sunjata.[33] Although traditionally attributed toMahmud Kati,Tarikh al-Fattash was written by at least three different authors.[34] Among the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as theMandinka,Soninke andSusu,griots are a group, traditionally a specializedcaste[35][36] who arebards, storytellers, andoral historians.[37]
Many of the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups in the westernmost part ofWest Africa have been predominantly Muslim since the 13th century. Others, such as theBambara, a Mandinka group, converted to Islam as late as the 19th century with some retaining their traditional beliefs.Muslim Mandinka also hold traditional beliefs, such as in the rituals of initiation groups likeChiwara, andDwo, and beliefs in the power of nyama (a spiritual power existing in nature).[26] Many smaller Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as theBobo, retain pre-Islamicbelief systems in their entirety. Many Mandé-speaking groups in Sierra Leone and Liberia were also, for the most part, not islamized.
According to oral histories, Mandé-speaking people, in particular theSoninke ethnic group, contributed through trade and settlement to the Islamization of non-MandéGur groups at the edge of the Sahel in West Africa.
Much Mandé art is in the form ofjewelry andcarvings. The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of theMarka and the Mendé are probably the best-known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mandé also produce beautifully woven fabrics which are popular throughout western Africa. They also create gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. TheBambara people and related groups also traditionally produce wooden sculpture. And sculpture in wood, metal, and terra-cotta, have been found, associated with ancient peoples related to the Soninke in Mali.[citation needed]
The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed to be heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mandé hunters often wear a single bell, which can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, often wear multiple bells, representative of concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together.[citation needed]
Djenné-Djenno, an ancient city on the Niger River in central Mali built by Soninke-related peoples, is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses, some dating to the first millennium and early second millennium AD.[38][39] It is believed that these statuettes served a ritual function and hypothesized that some are the representations of household or ancestral spirits, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in the area as late as the 20th century.[39]
The best known type of traditional music amongst the Mandé-speaking people is played on thekora, a stringed instrument with 21 or more strings mainly associated by theMandinka people. It is performed by families of musicians known in Mandinka asJeliw (sing.Jeli), or in French asgriots. The kora is a uniqueharp-lute with a notched wooden bridge. It is arguably the most complexchordophone of Africa.[citation needed]
TheN'goni is the ancestor of the modernbanjo, and is also played by jelis.[citation needed]
Griots are professional bards in northern West Africa, keepers of their great oral epic traditions and history. They are trusted and powerful advisors of Mandinka leaders. Among the most celebrated of these today areToumani Diabate,Mamadou Diabate, andKandia Kouyaté.[citation needed]