 Mandaeans in prayer, Iran | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| c. 60,000–200,000[1][2][3][4] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Sweden | 10,000–20,000[5][6] |
 Australia | 8,000–10,000[7][8][9] |
 United States | 5,000–7,000[10][11][12][13][14] |
 Iraq | 3,000[a]–6,000[15][14] |
 Netherlands | 4,000[3] |
 Iran | 2,500 (2015)[16][14] |
 United Kingdom | 2,500[3] |
 Germany | 2,200–3,000[17][6] |
 Jordan | 1,400–2,500[18][19] |
 Syria | 1,000 (2015)[20][14] |
 Canada | 1,000[21] |
 New Zealand | 1,000[6] |
 Denmark | 650–1,200[22][14] |
 Finland | 100 families[23] |
 France | 500[24] |
| Religions | |
| Mandaeism | |
| Scriptures | |
| Ginza Rabba,Qulasta,Mandaean Book of John,Haran Gawaita, etc. (see more) | |
| Languages | |
| |
Mandaeans (Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) (Arabic:المندائيونal-Mandāʾiyyūn), also known asMandaean Sabians (الصابئة المندائيونal-Ṣābiʾa al-Mandāʾiyyūn) or simply asSabians (الصابئةal-Ṣābiʾa),[b] are anethnoreligious group who are followers ofMandaeism. They believe thatJohn the Baptist was the final and most importantprophet.
They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practisebaptism, as well as among the earliest adherents ofGnosticism, a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives.[25][26]: 109 The Mandaeans were originally native speakers ofMandaic, anEastern Aramaic language, before they nearly all switched toMesopotamian Arabic orPersian as their main language.
Afterthe invasion of Iraq by theUnited States andits allies in 2003, the Mandaean community ofIraq, which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed with most of the community relocating toIran,Syria andJordan, or forming diaspora communities beyond theMiddle East.
The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religiouspersecution over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such asChristians,Jews andZoroastrians, Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar toBaháʼís in Iran.[16][27][28] By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.[29]There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide.[12] About 10,000 Mandaeans live inAustralia and between 10,000 and 20,000 inSweden, making them the countries with the most Mandaeans.[6][8] There are about 2,500 Mandaeans inJordan, the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.[19]
The name "Mandaean" comes from theMandaic wordmanda, meaning "to have knowledge".[30][31]
In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also calledSabians (Arabic:الصابئةal-Ṣābiʾa), aQuranic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see alsobelow).[32] The etymology of the Arabic wordṢābiʾ is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is theactive participle of the Arabicrootṣ-b-ʾ ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'.[33] Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from anAramaic root meaning 'to baptize'.[34]
According to a theory first proposed byIgnatius of Jesus in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in Judea and later migrated east to theMesopotamian Marshes.[35] This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, whichBiblical scholars likeRudolf Bultmann believed capable of shedding new light on the development ofearly Christianity.[35] However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Judean origin thesis, which byWorld War II was again largely deserted by scholars.[35] It was revived in the 1960s byRudolf Macúch; it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such asJorunn Jacobsen Buckley andŞinasi Gündüz.[35] According to Macúch, the eastward migration from theRoman province of Judea to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such asKurt Rudolph think it probably took place in the third century.[36]
There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated inSasanian-ruled Mesopotamia in thefifth century.[37] According toCarlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community inEdessa inlate antiquity.[38]Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from theJordan Valley, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.[39]: 55
There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in theDead Sea Scrolls, andYardena(Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.[40]Mara ḏ-Rabuta (Mandaic: "Lord of Greatness", one of the names forHayyi Rabbi) is found in theGenesis Apocryphon (1Q20) II, 4.[41] They formally refer to themselves asNaṣuraiia (ࡍࡀࡑࡅࡓࡀࡉࡉࡀ), meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.[42][43] Another early self-appellation isbhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in theBook of Enoch andGenesis Apocryphon II, 4.[41][42][44]: 18 [45] AsNasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation ofbnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by theEssenes.[46][47] Thebit manda (beth manda) is described asbiniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") andbit tušlima ("house of Perfection") inMandaean texts such as theQulasta,Ginza Rabba, and theMandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts fromQumran such as theCommunity Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."[48]
TheMandaic language, is a Southeastern Aramaic dialect, notable for its abundant use of vowel letters in writing (Mandaic alphabet)[49] and the amount ofIranian[50] andAkkadian[51] language influence on its lexicon, especially in the area of religious andmystical terminology. Mandaic is influenced byJewish Palestinian Aramaic,Samaritan Aramaic,Hebrew,Greek,Latin[52][53], in addition toAkkadian andParthian[54].
A priest holds the title ofRabbi[55] and a place of worship is called aMashkhanna.[56] According to Mandaean sources such as theHaran Gawaita, theNasuraiia inhabited the areas aroundJerusalem and theRiver Jordan in the 1st century CE.[26][43] There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq.[57][58] Scholars, includingKurt Rudolph, connect the early Mandaeans with theJewish sect of theNasoraeans. Mandaeans believe that their religion predates Judaism.[58][26][59][60] According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly fromShem,Noah's son, inMesopotamia[61]: 186 and also fromJohn the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.[43]: vi, ix According to the Mandaean Society in America,Mani (the founder ofManichaeism) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.[62]
Gerard Russell quotesRishamaSattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem."[63][page needed] The Mandaean Synod of Australia led byRishama Salah Choheili states:
Mandaeans are followers of John the Baptist. Their ancestors fled from theJordan Valley about 2000 years ago and ultimately settled along the lower reaches of theTigris,Euphrates andKarun Rivers in what is now Iraq and Iran.Baptism is the principal ceremony of the Mandaean religion and may only take place in a freshwater river.[64]
A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered inElymais. Although the letters appear quite similar to the Mandaean ones, it is impossible to know whether the inhabitants ofElymais were Mandaeans.[65]: 4 Rudolf Macúch believes Mandaean letters predate Elymaic ones.[65]: 4 UnderParthian and earlySasanian rule, foreign religions were tolerated and Mandaeans appear to have enjoyed royal protection.[65]: 4 The situation changed by the ascension ofBahram I in 273, who under the influence of the zealousZoroastrian high priestKartir persecuted all non-Zoroastrian religions. It is thought that this persecution encouraged the consolidation of Mandaean religious literature.[65]: 4 The persecutions instigated by Kartir seems to temporarily erase Mandaeans from recorded history. Their presence, however can still be found in Mandaeanmagical bowls andlead strips which were produced from the 3rd to the 7th century.[65]: 4
The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of theMuslim conquest of Mesopotamia inc. 640, when their leader,Anush bar Danqa, is said to have appeared before theMuslim authorities, showing them a copy of theGinza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to beJohn the Baptist, who is also mentioned in theQuran by the nameYahya ibn Zakariya. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement asPeople of the Book (ahl al-kitāb, adherents of religions recognized as guided by previous revelations).[65]: 5 However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled toBaghdad, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.[66]
Mandaeans appear to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib nearWasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center.[65]: 5 Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) 'Sabians' (seebelow) who consider themselves to be descendants ofSeth.[65]: 5
The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by theAbbasidcaliphal-Qahir Billah (899–950 CE), even though they had received recognition asPeople of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000dinars and were left alone. It appeared that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying theJizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.[65]: 5
It has been suggested by some scholars thatHarranian intellectuals who worked at the Abbasid court such asThābit ibn Qurra may have been Mandaeans,[67] though most scholars believe they were adherents of the paganastral religion of Harran.[68]
Early contact withEuropeans came about in the mid-16th century, whenPortuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in SouthernIraq and controversially designated them "Christians of St. John". In the next centuries Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.[65]: 5
The Mandaeans suffered persecution under theQajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when acholera epidemic broke out inShushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such asYahya Bihram.[65]: 6 Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor ofShushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.[65]: 6
._Baghdad._Views%2c_street_scenes%2c_and_types._A_Sabean_silversmith._At_work_in_his_jewelry_store._A_Sabean-sect_who_venerate_John_the_Baptist_LOC_matpc.15983.jpg)
Following theFirst World War, the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protectedIraq andIran.[69] Owing to the rise ofArab nationalism, Iraqi Mandaeans have seen the increased use of Arabic, with Mandaic being dropped as a language by the Mandaeans. With the rise of secularism in Iraq, more Mandaeans aimed to follow the secular way of life, with a lot of Iraqi Mandaeans abandoning daily baptisms, instead weekly ones, and for some monthly. By the 70s to 80s the Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.[69]
Mandeans, who mostly lived in rural parts of Maysan Governorate, migrated to large cities such as Baghdad and Basra.[70] This caused a major change in the community, as they transitioned from traditionalism to modernism.[70] The future generation entered the world of politics.[70] Some of them became leaders in the Communist Party.[70] Some of them entered the Baath Party and the rest of the parties.[70] During the time of Abdul Karim Qasim persecution decreased.[70] Later under Saddam Hussein, the Mandaean community flourished in Iraq.[70] They were given permission to practice their religion and the government allocated them lands to build their places of worship. A decree was issued in 1972, allowing Mandeans to have holiday and enjoy during their festivals.[71]
In Iraq, Mandaeans were renowned goldsmiths and silversmiths, particularly in Baghdad, where they operated shops in Al-Nahr Street,Shorjah,Qishla,Rusafa, Al-Karimat, Al-Azramli, and Al-Fahhama on theAl-Karkh side.[70] Many Mandaeans also held prominent positions in the government.[70]Lamia Abbas Amara served as Iraq’s cultural attaché and deputy permanent representative to UNESCO in Paris from 1973 to 1975.[70] Poet Abdul Razzaq Abdul was a cultural advisor to the Ministry of Culture and Information, while astronomer Abdul Azim Al-Sabti played a key role in establishing the Erbil Observatory on Mount Korek, the largest observatory in the Middle East.[70] In 2001, Saddam granted them the title of "Golden Sect".[70] He pledged to build more Mandaean temples.[70] RishamaSattar Jabbar Hilow met Saddam in 2001, an event televised in Iraq.[70] TheSabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on the land donated by the government.[70]
According to local sources, their population until 2003 was 75,000.[70] The 2003American invasion of Iraq and thewar that followed brought more troubles to Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated.[72] Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms.[72] The rise ofISIS forced thousands to flee the country, after they were giventhe choice of conversion or death.[72] It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.[72]
The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly inAhvaz,Iranian Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of theIran–Iraq War to other cities such asTehran,Karaj andShiraz.[73] The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered asPeople of the Book (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after theIranian Revolution.[73] However, despite this, Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such asAhwaz.[73] In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised.[73] The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status ofPeople of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being theSabians mentioned explicitly in theQuran.[73] That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi ofAl-Zahra University inQom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers.[73] These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book.[73] In 2009, Iran'sSupreme LeaderAyatollahAli Khamenei issued afatwā recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.[74][c]
Prior to theIraq War, the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such asNasiriyah,Amarah,Qal'at Saleh,[77]Wasit,[39]: 92 andBasra, as well as inBaghdad (particularly the district ofDora[78]). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such asQurna andSuq al-Shuyukh.[79]
Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities ofAhvaz andKhorramshahr.[80] Mandaean emigration from Iraq began duringSaddam Hussein's rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation.[81] Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians,Yazidi, Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.[81][82] Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.[81]Mandaeism ispacifistic and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.[81][83]: 91 During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.[39]
Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.[84][85] Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of theIraq War.[29] In 2019, anAl-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in theErbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.[15]
Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before theAbbasid Caliphate when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.[6]: 161
The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to theAssociated Press.[16] Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.[101]
Until theIranian Revolution, Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in theKhuzestan Province, where the community used to coexist with the localArab population. Other than the main cities ofAhvaz andKhorramshahr, Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as Chogha Zanbil inShush County,Shushtar, andAbadan,[65] as well asMahshahr,Shadegan,Behbahan, andSusangerd (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed inDezful,Hamidiyeh,Hoveyzeh,Karun, andAbadan.[39]: 48
They were mainly employed asgoldsmiths, passing their skills from generation to generation.[101] After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.
In Iran, theGozinesh Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and othergozinesh provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.[102] These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans,Yarsanis andBaháʼís.[103]
In 2002, theUS State Department granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US,[16] now residing in cities such asSan Antonio, Texas.[104][105] On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.[106]
Following the Iraq War, the Mandaean community dispersed mostly throughoutJordan,Syria,[109] andIran. Mandaeans in Jordan number about 2,500 (2018)[19][110] and in Syria there are about 1,000 remaining (2015).[110][14]
There are Mandaean diaspora populations inSweden (c. 10,000–20,000),[6][5]Australia (c. 10,000),[8][111] theUS (c. 4,000–7,000),[14][12] theUK (c. 2,500),[3]New Zealand andCanada.[112][113][114][81] There are also Mandaeans living inGermany, theNetherlands (inNijmegen,The Hague, etc.),Denmark,[22]Finland,[115]France,[24] and smaller communities inNorway andItaly.[14][116]
TheSydney metropolitan area in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world.[77] The community is centered inGreater Western Sydney suburbs such asPenrith[117] andLiverpool.[118] In Liverpool, the mainmandi (Beth Manda) isGanzibra Dakhil Mandi.[119] The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of theNepean River atWallacia, New South Wales in order to build a new mandi.[120]
Sweden became a popular destination because a Mandaean community existed there before the war and the Swedish government has a liberal asylum policy toward Iraqis. There are between 10,000 and 20,000Mandaeans in Sweden (2019).[6][113][81] The scattered nature of the Mandaean diaspora has raised fears among Mandaeans for the religion's survival. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.[16][82]
On September 15, 2018, theBeth Manda Yardna was consecrated inDalby, Scania, Sweden.[121][122]
In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered inSan Antonio (c. 2,500),[13]New York City,San Diego,[65]Winnetka, California,Austin, Texas,[123]Worcester, Massachusetts (c. 2,500),[10][11]Warren, Michigan,[124]Chicago,[125] and other major metropolitan areas. There is amandi inDetroit.[126]
The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007,The New York Times ran anop-ed piece in which Swarthmore professorNathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community.[29] Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by theUS State Department in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling inWorcester, Massachusetts.[16][1] The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East.[11] About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since theIraq War.[127]
Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicingMandaeism, which is amonotheistic,Gnostic, andethnic religion[65]: 4 [128][129] (Aramaicmanda means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek termgnosis.)[129] Its adherents revereAdam,Abel,Seth,Enosh,Noah,Shem,Aram, and especiallyJohn the Baptist.[129][30][130] Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.[131][132]
The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.[129] They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from theWorld of Light (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from theWorld of Darkness.[129] In relation to thebody–mind dualism coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.
Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented byNhura (Light) andMaia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented byHshuka (darkness) andMaia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven calledAlma d-Nhura (World of Light).[133]
In Mandaeism, theWorld of Light is ruled by a Supreme God, known asHayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').[133] Othernames used areMare d'Rabuta ('Lord of Greatness'),Mana Rabba ('The Great Mind'),Melka d'Nhura ('King of Light') andHayyi Qadmaiyi ('The First Life').[61][134] God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number ofuthras (angels or guardians),[65]: 8 manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e.Yōšamin,Abathur, andPtahil).[135][65]: 8
The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of theWorld of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos.[135][61] A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the nameUr, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known asRuha.[135] The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of theseven planets andtwelve zodiac constellations.[135]
According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created byPtahil, who fills the role of thedemiurge, with help from dark powers, such asRuha, the Seven, and the Twelve.[135] Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light. Therefore, many Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the lightworld. The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' orAdam kasia, is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the lightworld.[135]Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism, as in religions such as Christianity; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation.[25] Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives.[136][1] John the Baptist is a key figure for the Mandaeans; they consider him to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean.[61]: 3 [137][8] John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.[65][61]
According toEdmondo Lupieri, as stated in his article inEncyclopædia Iranica,
The possible historical connection withJohn the Baptist, as seen in the newly translated Mandaean texts, convinced many (notablyR. Bultmann) that it was possible, through the Mandaean traditions, to shed some new light on the history of John and on theorigins of Christianity. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their Palestinian origins. As the archeological discovery of Mandaeanincantation bowls andlead amulets proved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans' departure from Palestine.
Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims thatZazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd century.Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied theGinza Rabba.[77][35] In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.[138]Edwin Yamauchi believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE.[139]: 78 [140] Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized byJames F. McGrath.[141] Al-Zuhairy (1998) believes that the roots of Mandaeism lies in Mesopotamia, inherited from the Sumerians, and the present form of Mandaeism likely emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd century BCE.[142]
The Mandaean authorAziz Sbahi in his book,The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs, traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and theDead Sea region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans.[143]Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.[39]: 55
Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such asKurt Rudolph,Mark Lidzbarski,Rudolf Macúch,Ethel S. Drower,Eric Segelberg,James F. McGrath,Charles G. Häberl,Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, andŞinasi Gündüz argue for an Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.[144][145][146][147] Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing inMandaic, findsJewish Aramaic,Samaritan Aramaic,Hebrew,Greek andLatin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Israelite history with Jews".[148][149] In addition, scholars such asRichard August Reitzenstein,Rudolf Bultmann,G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves,Gilles Quispel, and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine orJordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.[150][151][152][153][154][155] James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.[156][157]Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"[158] and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."[159]Barbara Thiering questions the dating of theDead Sea Scrolls and suggests that theTeacher of Righteousness (leader of theEssenes) was John the Baptist.[160] Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins[26]: 97 and adds:
[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of – or at least contributors to the development of – Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].[26]: 109
During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with theSabaeans ofSouth Arabia) mentioned in theQuran alongside the Jews, the Christians, and theZoroastrians as a 'people of the book' (ahl al-kitāb).[161] These religious groups, which included the Mandaeans but also variouspagan groups inHarran (Upper Mesopotamia) and themarshlands of southern Iraq, claimed the name in order to be recognized by the Muslim authorities as a people of the book deserving of legal protection (dhimma).[162] The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans wasal-Hasan ibn Bahlul (fl. 950–1000) citing the Abbasid vizierAbu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (c. 885–940).[163] However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.[164]
Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans,[165] although many other possible identifications have been proposed.[166] Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty.[167] Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.[168]
TheHaran Gawaita uses the nameNasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.[42] Scholars such asKurt Rudolph,Rudolf Macúch,Mark Lidzbarski andEthel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with theNasaraeans described byEpiphanius, a group within theEssenes according toJoseph Lightfoot.[169][170][147] Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.[171][172]
The Nasaraeans ‐ they were Jews by nationality ‐ originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledgedMoses and believed that he had received laws ‐ not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that theseBooks are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.
— Epiphanius'Panarion 1:18
Neo-Mandaic is the contemporary language spoken by some Mandaeans, whileClassical Mandaic is the liturgical language of Mandaeism.[173] However, most Mandaeans currently do not speak conversational Neo-Mandaic in everyday life, but rather the languages of their host countries, such as Arabic, Farsi, or English.
According to theIranian Journal of Public Health:[174]
About 20 centuries ago, Mandaeans migrated fromJordan/Palestine areas to Iraq and Iran. Therefore, their gene pool was separated from their origins for about 20 centuries. During this period, evolutionary forces might have some effects on the Mandaeans' gene pool. The frequency of theGSTM1 null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian,Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 27.1%, 56.0%, 55.2%, and 55.2% (9, 10), respectively. On the other hand, the frequency of theGSTT1 null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 24.2%, 22.0%, 26.0%, 22.1% (9, 10), respectively. Comparisons between Iranian Mandaeans and above-mentioned populations demonstrating that Mandaeans showed higher and lower levels of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes, respectively. There was [a] remarkable difference between Mandaeans and other mentioned populations for the frequency of the GSTM1 null genotype.Mutation, gene flow and natural selection should be disregarded in [the] interpretation [of] the influence of evolutionary forces on Mandaeans and their surrounding gene pools. In Iran and Iraq Mandaeans lived as small and isolated ethno-religious communities. Therefore, genetic drift, at least in part might account for differences between Mandaeans and other populations.
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