Manchu folk religion orManchu traditional religion is theethnic religion practiced by most of theManchu people, the majorTungusic group inChina. It can also be calledManchu shamanism because the word "shaman" being originally fromTungusicšamán ("man of knowledge"),[1] later applied by Western scholars to similar religious practices in other cultures.
It is ananimistic andpolytheistic religion, believing in severalgods and spirits, led by a universal sky god calledAbka Enduri ("Sky God" or "God of Heaven"), also referred to asAbka Han ("Sky Khan" or "Khan of Heaven") andAbka Ama ("Sky Father"), originallyAbka Hehe ("Sky Woman", by extension "Sky Mother") who is the source of all life and creation.[2] Deities (enduri) enliven every aspect of nature, and the worship of these gods is believed to bring favour, health and prosperity.[3] Many of the deities were originallyManchu ancestors, and people with the same surname are generated by the same god.[4]
Shamans are persons of unusual ability, strength and sensitivity, capable of perception and prediction of the ways of the gods. They are endowed with the social function of conducting sacrificial ceremonies and approach the deities asking them for intervention or protection. Because of their abilities, shamans are people of great authority and prestige. Usually, every Manchu kin has its own shaman.[3]
Manchu folk religious rites were standardised by theQianlong Emperor (1736–1796) in theManchu Sacrificial Ritual to the Gods and Heaven (Manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe), a manual published inManchu in 1747 and inQing Mandarin (Chinese:欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮) in 1780.[4][5] With the conquest of imperial power duringQing China, the Manchu gradually adopted Mandarin and assimilated into theChinese religion, although Manchu folk religion persists with a distinct character within broader Chinese religion.
Study of Manchu religion usually distinguishes two types of ritual, "domestic" and "primitive", which can be performed in two cultic settings, "imperial" and "common". The domestic ritual primarily involves the sacrifices for the progenitors of lineages and is the most important, while the primitive ritual involves the sacrifices for zoomorphic gods.[6] The ritual manual of Qianlong was an attempt to adapt all kins' ritual traditions to the style of the imperial kin's ritual tradition. This was only partially effective as common cults were preserved and revitalised over time.[7]
The ancestral ritual is the same in the common and imperial cults.[8] It is composed of three main moments: the dawn sacrifice (Chinese:chaoji), the sunset sacrifice (xiji) and the "light-extinguishing" sacrifice (beidingji) held at midnight. Both common and imperial rituals make use of the gods' pole (Chinese:神杆shéngān or神柱shénzhù, Manchu:šomo) as a means of establishing connection with Heaven.[8]
While the domestic ritual is bright and harmonious, the primitive or "wild" ritual is associated with darkness and mystery.[9] Deities involved are not those of the sky, the earth or the ancestors, but are zoomorphic chthonic deities. With its reliance on techniques of ecstasy, the primitive ritual had long been discouraged by the court (Hong Taiji proscribed it as early as 1636).[9]
Manchu religious cults originally took place in shrines calledtangse (Chinese:堂子tángzi, "hall"; or謁廟yèmiào, "visitation temple")[10]) but at least by 1673 all communaltangse were prohibited with the exception of the imperial cult building. Households continued their rituals at private altars calledweceku.[8]
Common cults gradually adopted deities fromChinese religion in addition to Tungusic gods.Guwan mafa (關帝Guāndì,Divus Guan), whose martial character appealed to the Manchus, became one of the most beloved deities. Another popular cult was that of the Goddess (娘娘Niángniáng).[8]
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