"Manchu" (Manchu:ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ, Möllendorff:manju,Chinese:滿洲) was adopted as the official name of the people by EmperorHong Taiji in 1635, replacing the earlier name "Jurchen". Allegedly,manju was an old term for theJianzhou Jurchens, although the etymology is not well understood.[16]: 63 [17]: 49 The Chinese characters chosen to translate the Manchu name are 滿洲 which, like the character for "Qing" (清), include thewater component. Possibly this was done because theMing dynasty's name (明), which means "bright", represents fire, and water extinguishes fire.[18]
TheJiu Manzhou Dang, archives of early 17th century documents, contains the earliest use of Manchu.[19] According to the Qing dynasty's official historical record, theResearches on Manchu Origins, the ethnic name came fromMañjuśrī.[20] TheQianlong Emperor supported that point of view and wrote poems on the subject.[21]: 6
Qing dynasty scholar Meng Sen agreed. He also thought the name might stem from Li Manzhu (李滿住), the chieftain of theJianzhou Jurchens.[21]: 4–5
Scholar Chang Shan held that Manju is a compound word.Man was from the wordmangga (ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ) which means "strong", andju (ᠵᡠ) means "arrow". In this interpretation,Manju means "intrepid arrow".[22]
Other hypotheses includeFu Sinian's "etymology of Jianzhou";Zhang Binglin's "etymology of Manshi";Ichimura Sanjiro's [ja] "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe"; "etymology of mangu(n) river" and so on.[23][24][25]
An extensive etymological study from 2022 lends additional support to the view thatmanju is cognate with words referring to the lower Amur river in otherTungusic languages and can be reconstructed to Proto-Tungusic *mamgo 'lower Amur, large river'.[26]
The Manchus are descended from theJurchen people who earlier established theJin dynasty (1115–1234) in China.[27][28]: 5 [29] The nameMohe might refer to an ancestral Manchu population. The Mohe practiced pig husbandry and were mainly sedentary.[30] They used pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybeans, wheat, millet and rice, in addition to hunting.[30]
In the 10th century AD, the termJurchen first appeared in documents of the lateTang dynasty in reference to the state ofBalhae in present-day northeastern China. The Jurchens were sedentary,[31] settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep and horses.[32] These farmers lived differently from the pastoral nomadism of theMongols and theKhitans on thesteppes.[33][34]
In 1019, Jurchen piratesraided Japan for slaves. Japanese governor Fujiwara Notada was killed.[35] 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed, and 380 Japanese-owned livestock were killed for food.[36][37] Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the 8 ships.[38][39][40][41] The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied[clarification needed].[42] Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019Toi invasion, theMongol invasions of Japan, and Japanese views of the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" (adopting China's barbarian-civilized binary), may have played a role in Japan's hostility to Manchus in later centuries. For example,Tokugawa Ieyasu viewedthe unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought thatHokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. TheTokugawa ShogunateBakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering to help Korea against the1627 Manchu invasion, which was declined.[43]
Following the fall of Balhae, the Jurchens became vassals of theLiao dynasty. TheYalu River Jurchens became tributaries ofGoryeo during the reign ofWang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of theLater Three Kingdoms period. The Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. Posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security, the Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting gifts in return.[44] Before the Jurchens overthrew the Khitan, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao Khitan envoysas a custom which caused resentment.[45] The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names, such as suffixes.[46] Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.[47] In the year 1114,Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established theJin dynasty (1115–1234).[48]: 19–46 His brother and successor,Wanyan Wuqimai defeated the Liao. After the fall of the Liao, the Jurchens went to war with theNorthern Song dynasty, and captured most of northern China in theJin–Song wars.[48]: 47–67 During the Jin dynasty in the 1120s, the firstJurchen script came into use. It was mainly derived fromKhitan script.[48]: 19–46
In 1206, theMongols, thenvassals to the Jurchens, rose in Mongolia. Their leader,Genghis Khan, led Mongol troops against the Jurchens, who were ultimately defeated byÖgedei Khan in 1234.[10]: 18 Jurchen Jin emperorWanyan Yongji's daughter Jurchen Princess Qiguo married Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving theMongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in theMongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.[49] The Yuan grouped people into different categories based on how recently their state surrendered to the Yuan. Subjects of the southern Song were classified as southerners (nan ren) and also referred to asmanzi. Subjects of the Jin dynasty,Western Xia, and the kingdom of Dali inYunnan in southern China were categorized as northerners, using the termHan. However, the use of theHan as the name of a class category by the Yuan dynasty was a different concept fromHan ethnicity.
Ethnic Han people were divided into two classes in the Yuan,Han Ren andNan Ren. Additionally, the Yuan directive to treat Jurchens the same as Mongols referred to Jurchens and Khitans in the northwest (not the Jurchen homeland in the northeast), presumably in the lands of Qara Khitai, where many Khitans lived. However, it remains a mystery as to how Jurchens were living there.[50] Many Jurchens adopted Mongolian customs, names, and theMongolian language. As time went on, fewer and fewer Jurchens could recognize their own script. The JurchenYehe Nara clan is of paternal Mongol origin.
Many Jurchen families descended from the original Jin Jurchen migrants in Han areas such as those using the surnames Wang and Nian 粘 reclaimed their ethnicity and registered as Manchus. Wanyan (完顏) clan members who changed their surnames to Wang (王) after the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty applied successfully to the national government for their ethnic group to be marked as Manchu despite never having been part of theEight Banner system during the Qing dynasty. The surname Nianhan (粘罕), shortened to Nian (粘) is a surname of Jurchen origin, also originating from one of the members of the royal Wanyan clan. It is an extremely rare surname in China, and members of the Nian clan live inNan'an,Quanzhou,Jinjiang,Shishi,Xiamen,Fuzhou,Zhangpu andSanming,Fujian, as well as inLaiyang,Shandong and inXingtai,Hebei. Some of the Nian from Quanzhou immigrated to Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia. In Taiwan they are concentrated inChanghua county. There are less than 30,000 members of the Nian clan worldwide, with 9,916 of them in Taiwan, and 3,040 of those in Fuxing township of Changhua county.
建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽，樂住種，善緝紡，飲食服用，皆如華人，自長白山迤南，可拊而治也。"The (people of)Chien-chou and Mao-lin [YLSL always reads Mao-lien] are the descendants of thefamily Ta ofPo-hai. They love to be sedentary and sew, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. Those living south of theCh'ang-pai mountain are apt to be soothed and governed."
魏焕《皇明九邊考》卷二《遼東鎮邊夷考》[51] Translation fromSino-Jürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424 by Henry Serruys[52]
The Yuan dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming forces defeated the Mongol commanderNaghachu's resisting forces who settled in theHaixi area[16]: 11 and summoned the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute.[21]: 21 At the time, Jurchen clans such asOdoli andHuligai were vassals to theJoseon dynasty of Korea.[21]: 97, 120 Their elites served in the Korean royal bodyguard.[16]: 15
The Joseon Koreans approached the military threat posed by the Jurchen by forceful means, incentives, and by launching military attacks. At the same time they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them, and sought toacculturate them by having Jurchens integrate into Korean culture.[53][54] Their relationship was eventually stopped by the Ming government, who wanted the Jurchens to protect the border. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to theYongle Emperor. Soon after,Möngke Temür,[d] chieftain of the Odoli clan of theJianzhou Jurchens, stopped paying tribute to Korea, instead becoming atributary to China.
Yi Seong-gye, theTaejo of Joseon, asked the Ming Empire to send Möngke Temür back, but was refused.[21]: 120 The Yongle Emperor was determined to move the Jurchens from Korean to Chinese influence.[55]: 29 [56] Korea unsuccessfully tried to persuadeMöngke Temür to reject the Ming overtures, and he submitted to the Ming Empire.[57][55]: 30 More and more Jurchen tribes began to offer tribute to the Ming Empire.[21]: 21 The Ming divided them into 384 guards,[16]: 15 and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming Empire.[58] During the Ming dynasty, the name for the Jurchen land wasNurgan. The Jurchens became part of the Ming dynasty'sNurgan Regional Military Commission under the Yongle Emperor, with Ming forces erecting theYongning Temple Stele in 1413, at the headquarters of Nurgan. Thestele was inscribed in Chinese, Jurchen, Mongolian, and Tibetan.
In 1449,MongolTaishiEsen attacked the Ming Empire and captured theZhengtong Emperor inTumu. Some Jurchen guards in Jianzhou andHaixi cooperated with Esen,[15]: 185 but more were attacked in the Mongol invasion. Many Jurchen chieftains lost their hereditary certificates granted by the Ming government.[21]: 19 They had to present tribute as secretariats (中書舍人) with less reward from the Ming court than in the time when they were heads of guards–an unpopular development.[21]: 130 Subsequently, more and more Jurchens recognised the Ming Empire's declining power due to Esen's invasion. TheZhengtong Emperor's capture directly caused Jurchen guards to go out of control.[21]: 19, 21 Tribal leaders, such asCungšan[e] andWang Gao, plundered Ming territory. At about this time, the Jurchen script was officially abandoned.[59]: 120 More Jurchens adopted Mongolian as their writing language and fewer used Chinese.[60] The final recorded Jurchen writing dates to 1526.[61]
The Manchus are sometimes mistakenly classified as nomadic people.[62][63][64]: 24 note 1 The Manchu society was agricultural, farming crops and tending animals.[65] Manchus practicedslash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north ofShenyang.[66] TheHaixi Jurchens were semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian (毛憐) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens".[67] Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary farmers Jianzhou and Maolian.[68] Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and agriculture were all part of Jianzhou Jurchens culture.[69] Although Manchus practiced equestrianism and archery on horseback, their immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture.[70]: 43 Manchus also partook in hunting.[71] They lived in villages, forts, and walled towns.[72]
Only the Mongols and the northern Wild Jurchen were semi-nomadic. The rest gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for game pelts in the uplands and forests, raised horses in stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling, and drinking strong liquor.
These Jurchens, who lived in the northeast's harsh cold climate, sometimes half-sunk their houses in the ground, which they constructed of brick or timber. They surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud wall fortifications. Village clusters were ruled bybeile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves, and lands to their followers.[citation needed]
Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongol script for their own language, unlike the Jin Jurchens' Khitan-derived script. They adopted Confucian values and shamanic traditions.[73]
Unlike their Mohe ancestors, the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty, and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs.
For political reasons, the Jurchen leaderNurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols.[74]: 127 Nurhaci said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism," since Nurhaci said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat, and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages."[16]: 31 Nurhaci, a chieftain of the Jianzhou Left Guard who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial power of theMing dynasty,[75] made efforts tounify the Jurchen tribes and established a military system called the "Eight Banners", which organized Jurchen soldiers into groups of "Bannermen", and ordered his scholar Erdeni and minister Gagai to create a new Jurchen script (later known asManchu script) using thetraditional Mongolian alphabet as a reference.[76]: 71, 88, 116, 137
During the transition from Ming to Qing, Nanjing civilian official Zhang Sunzhen remarked that he had a portrait of his ancestors wearing Manchu clothes because his family wereTartars. Therefore, he considered it appropriate to shave his head into the Manchu hairstyle when thequeue order was given.[77][78]
The Qing stationed the "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into farmers, but the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing forced the Warka to become soldier-farmers, but the Warka left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari river to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion.[79]
When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created from unrelated people founding a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for theirhala (clan name).[80] The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led the Qing to try to systematize the creation of historical documents for Manchu clans, including manufacturing a legend around the origin of the Aisin-Gioro clan using mythology from the northeast.[81]
In 1603, Nurhaci gained recognition as the Sure Kundulen Khan (Manchu:ᠰᡠᡵᡝ ᡴᡠᠨᡩᡠᠯᡝᠨ ᡥᠠᠨ, Möllendorff:sure kundulen han, Abkai:sure kundulen han, "wise and respected khan") from his Khalkha Mongol allies;[8]: 56 then, in 1616, he enthroned himself and issued a proclamation naming himself Genggiyen Khan (Manchu:ᡤᡝᠩᡤᡳᠶᡝᠨ ᡥᠠᠨ, Möllendorff:genggiyen han, Abkai:genggiyen han, "bright khan") of the Later Jin dynasty (Manchu:ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ, Möllendorff:aisin gurun, Abkai:aisin gurun, 後金).[f] Nurhaci then renounced the Ming overlordship with theSeven Grievances and launched his attack on the Ming dynasty[8]: 56 and moved the capital toMukden after his conquest of Liaodong.[76]: 282 In 1635, his son and successorHong Taiji changed the name of the Jurchen ethnic group (Manchu:ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ, Möllendorff:jušen, Abkai:juxen) to the Manchu.[82]: 330–331 A year later, Hong Taiji proclaimed himself the emperor of theQing dynasty (Manchu:ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ, Möllendorff:daicing gurun, Abkai:daiqing gurun[g]).[84]: 15 Factors for the name change from Jurchen to Manchu include the fact that the term "Jurchen" had negative connotations since the Jurchens had been in a servile position vis a vis the Ming dynasty for hundreds of years, and it also referred to people of the "dependent class".[8]: 70 [85] The change was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, had been ruled by the Chinese.[86][87][88][29]: 280 The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of "Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu" and the "Manzhou Shilu Tu" (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin-Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty.[89][90] In the Ming period, the Koreans ofJoseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the riversYalu andTumen to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) that they called Ming China.[91] The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, from theHistory of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. TheMing Veritable Records were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.[92]
In 1644, the Ming capital,Beijing, was sacked by apeasant revolt led byLi Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the establishment of theShun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, theChongzhen Emperor, died by suicide byhanging himself when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming generalWu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened theShanhai Pass to the Manchu army. After the Manchus defeatedLi Zicheng, they established their capital inBeijing (Manchu:ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ, Möllendorff:beging, Abkai:beging[93]) in the same year.[84]: 19–20
The Qing government distinguished between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were Han Chinese who defected to the Qing Empire up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to acculturating to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing Empire and swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest.[94][95][96] It was this multi-ethnic, majority Han force in which Manchus were a minority that conquered China for the Qing Empire.[97]
A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women was organized to balance the massive number of Han women who entered the Manchu court ascourtesans,concubines, and wives. These couples were arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two groups.[98]: 148 To further promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from theShunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue (if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners) or the permission of their banner company captain (if they were unregistered commoners). Later in the dynasty these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.[99][98]: 140
The Qing Empire ca. 1820
As a result of theirconquest of Ming China, almost all the Manchus followed theprince regentDorgon and theShunzhi Emperor toBeijing and settled there.[100]: 134 [101]: 1 (Preface) A few were sent to other places such asInner Mongolia,Xinjiang andTibet to serve as garrison troops.[101]: 1 (Preface) 1524 Bannermen were in Manchuria at the time of the initial Manchu conquest.[100]: 18 After a series ofborder conflicts with the Russians, the Qing emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back where they came from.[100]: 134 Throughout the Qing dynasty, Beijing was the center of the political, economic and cultural spheres. TheYongzheng Emperor noted: "Garrisons are the places of stationed works, Beijing is their homeland."[102]: 1326
While the Manchu ruling elite in Beijing and posts of authority throughout China increasingly adoptedHan culture, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a vital reservoir of military power dedicated to the regime.[103]: 182–184 The Qing emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as other tribal peoples) in central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means. In particular, they restricted the migration of Han settlers to the region. This had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense of northern China against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with a skilled work force, and conducting trade, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Han convicts, workers, and merchants to the northeast.[103]: 20–23, 78–90, 112–115
Han Chinese transfrontiersmen and other non-Jurchen origin people who joined the Later Jin early were put into the Manchu Banners and were known asbaisin in Manchu, and not put into the Han Banners.[104][105]: 82 An example was the Tokoro Manchu clan in the Manchu banners, which claimed to be descended from a Han Chinese with the surname of Tao who had moved north fromZhejiang toLiaodong and joined the Jurchens before the Qing in the Ming Wanli emperor's era.[104][105]: 48 [106][107] The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan ofFushun inLiaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan ofJilin, attempting to get transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of theKangxi emperor.[108]
Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their recorded ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan (台尼堪, watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan (撫順尼堪, Fushun Chinese)[8]: 84 backgrounds transferred into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of theQianlong emperor.[105]: 128 Between 1618 and 1629 the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Manchus.[105]: 103–105 These clans continued to use their Han surnames and were marked as of Han origin onQing lists of Manchu clans.[109][110][111][112] The Fushun Nikan became Manjurified and the originally Han banner families of Wang Shixuan, Cai Yurong, Zu Dashou, Li Yongfang, Shi Tingzhu and Shang Kexi intermarried extensively with Manchu families.[113]
A Manchu Bannerman in Guangzhou called Hequan illegally adopted a Han Chinese named Zhao Tinglu, the son of former Han bannerman Zhao Quan, and named him Quanheng so that he could benefit from his adopted son receiving a salary as a Banner soldier.[114]
Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were calledirgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility of the Eight Great Houses who held noble titles.[81][115]
Manchu bannermen of the capital garrison in Beijing were said to be the worst militarily, unable to draw bows, unable to ride horses and fight properly and abandoning their Manchu culture.[8]: 282
Manchu bannermen from the Xi'an banner garrison were praised for maintaining Manchu culture by Kangxi in 1703.[8]: 280 Xi'an garrison Manchus were said to retain Manchu culture far better than other Manchus at martial skills in the provincial garrisons and they were able to draw their bows properly and perform cavalry archery, unlike Beijing Manchus. The Qianlong emperor received a memorial saying Xi'an Manchu bannermen still had martial skills although not up to those in the past in a 1737 memorial from Cimbu.[8]: 281 By the 1780s, the military skills of Xi'an Manchu bannermen had dropped although they were regarded as the most militarily skilled provincial Manchu banner garrison.[8]: 282 Manchu women from the Xi'an garrison often left the walled Manchu garrison and went tohot springs outside the city and gained bad reputations for their sexual behavior. A Manchu from Beijing, Sumurji, was shocked and disgusted by this after he was appointed Lieutenant general of the Manchu garrison of Xi'an and informed theYongzheng emperor.[8]: 289 [116] Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an had bad relations, with the bannermen trying to steal at the markets. Manchu Lieutenant general Cimbru reported this to Yongzheng emperor in 1729. Governor Yue Rui ofShandong was then ordered by the Yongzheng to report any bannerman misbehavior and warned him not to cover it up in 1730 after Manchu bannermen were put in a quarter in Qingzhou.[8]: 224 Manchu bannermen from the garrisons in Xi'an and Jingzhou fought in Xinjiang in the 1770s and Manchus from Xi'an garrison fought in other campaigns against the Dzungars and Uyghurs throughout the 1690s and 18th century. In the 1720sJingzhou,Hangzhou andNanjing Manchu banner garrisons fought inTibet.[8]: 177
For the over 200 years Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an lived next to each other, but did not intermarry.[117] SociologistEdward Alsworth Ross wrote of his visit to Xi'an just before the Xinhai revolution:
In Sianfu the Tartar quarter is a dismal picture of crumbling walls, decay, indolence and squalor. On the big drill grounds you see the runways along which the horseman gallops and shoots arrows at a target while the Tartar military mandarins look on. These lazy bannermen were tried in the new army but proved flabby and good-for-nothing; they would break down on an ordinary twenty-mile march. Battening on their hereditary pensions they have given themselves up to sloth and vice, and their poor chest development, small weak muscles, and diminishing families foreshadow the early dying out of the stock. Where is there a better illustration of the truth that parasitism leads to degeneration!
Ross spoke highly of the Han andHui population of Xi'an,Shaanxi andGansu, saying: "After a fortnight of mule litter we sight ancient yellow Sianfu, "the Western capital," with its third of a million souls. Within the fortified triple gate the facial mold abruptly changes and the refined intellectual type appears. Here and there faces of a Hellenic purity of feature are seen and beautiful children are not uncommon. These Chinese cities make one realize how the cream of the population gathers in the urban centers. Everywhere town opportunities have been a magnet for the élite of the open country."[118]: 275
The Qing dynasty altered its law on intermarriage between Han civilians and Manchu bannermen several times. Initially, the Qing allowed Han civilians to marry Manchu women. Then the Qing banned civilians from marrying women from the Eight banners. In 1865, the Qing allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu bannerwomen in all garrisons except the capital garrison of Beijing. No formal law limited marriage between people in the different banners, but it was informally regulated by social status and custom. In northeastern China such asHeilongjiang and Liaoning it was more common for Manchu women to marry Han men since they were not subject to the same laws and institutional oversight as Manchus and Han in Beijing and elsewhere.[119]
In the 1850s, large numbers of Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight theTaiping rebels. (For example, just theHeilongjiang province – which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang – contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of whom only 10–20% survived).[103]: 117 Those few who returned were demoralized and often ended up inopium addiction.[103]: 124–125 In 1860, in the aftermath of theloss ofOuter Manchuria, and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open toChinese settlement;[103]: 103, sq within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most Manchuria districts.
PrinceZaitao dresses in modern reformed uniform of late Qing dynasty
The majority of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from theEight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, since Han Chinese were expelled and not allowed to re-enter the inner part of the city.[120][121][122] Only after the "Hundred Days Reform", during the reign of emperorGuangxu, were Han allowed to enter inner Beijing.[122]
Many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported theBoxers in theBoxer Rebellion and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.[81] The Manchu Bannermen were devastated by the fighting during theFirst Sino-Japanese War. They conducted much of the fighting in theBoxer Rebellion, sustaining massive casualties followed by hardship.[123]: 80 German MinisterClemens von Ketteler was assassinated by a Manchu.[1]: 72 Thousands of Manchus fled south fromAigun during the Boxer Rebellion, their cattle and horses stolen by RussianCossacks who razed their villages and homes.[124]: 4 The Manchu clan system in Aigun was obliterated by the invaders.[125]
By the 19th century, most Manchus in the city garrison spoke onlyMandarin, and not Manchu, which distinguished them from their Han neighbors in southern China, who spoke other dialects. The Manchus' use of Beijing dialects made recognizing them relatively easy.[123]: 204 [1]: 204 The Manchu Bannermen spoke northern Standard Chinese, instead of the local dialect. Manchus in the garrisons atJingzhou andGuangzhou spoke Beijing Mandarin even thoughCantonese was Guangzhou's common language. Their Beijing dialect distinguished bannermen at the Xi'an garrison from locals who spoke theXi'an dialect.[123]: 42 [1]: 42 Bannermen took jobs as teachers, writing textbooks for learning Mandarin and instructing people in Mandarin.[126]: 69 In Guangdong, Manchu Mandarin teacher Sun Yizun advised that theYinyun Chanwei andKangxi Zidian, dictionaries issued by the Qing government, were the correct guides to Mandarin pronunciation, rather than the pronunciation of the Beijing andNanjing dialects.[126]: 51
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for financial status.[127] Most intermarriage consisted of Han Bannermen marrying Manchus in areas like Aihun.[123]: 263 [128]
As the end of the Qing dynasty approached,Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers byChinese nationalists such asSun Yat-sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers.[1]: 265 This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought toinclude Manchus within itsnational identity.[1]: 275 However, the revolution still saw many massacres committed by revolutionaries against the Manchus, most notably inJiading, Xi'an, andYangzhou, resulting in at least 12,000 known deaths in these three cities alone. The revolution drastically sped up the political/economic decline of the Manchu population. In order to blend in, some Manchus switched to speaking the local dialect instead of Standard Chinese.[123]: 270 [1]: 270
By the early years of theRepublic of China, very few areas of China still had traditional Manchu populations. Among the few regions hosting such relatively traditional communities, and where the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were theAigun (Manchu:ᠠᡳᡥᡡᠨ, Möllendorff:aihūn, Abkai:aihvn) District and theQiqihar (Manchu:ᠴᡳᠴᡳᡤᠠᡵ, Möllendorff:cicigar, Abkai:qiqigar) District ofHeilongjiang Province.[124]: i, 3–4
Until 1924, the Chinese government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen, but many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names to avoid persecution.[1]: 270 The official total of Manchus fell by more than half during this period, as they obscured their ethnicity when asked.[1]: 270, 283 Exceptionally, in warlordZhang Zuolin's reign in Manchuria, much better treatment was reported,[129]: 157 [15]: 153 with no particular persecution of Manchus.[129]: 157 Qing emperor mausoleums were still allowed to be managed by Manchu guardsmen, as in the past.[129]: 157 Many Manchus joined theFengtian clique, such asXi Qia, a member of the Qing dynasty's imperial clan.
A naval inspection of Manchukuo onSonghua River in September 1935, with itsNaval flag over the deck
As a follow-up to theMukden Incident,Manchukuo, a puppet state in Manchuria, was created by theEmpire of Japan which was nominally ruled by the deposed Last Emperor,Puyi, in 1932. Although the nation's name implied a Manchu affiliation, it was actually a new country incorporating all the ethnicities in Manchuria.[130][129]: 160 It had a majorityHan population and was opposed by many Manchus as well as people of other ethnicities who fought against Japan in theSecond Sino-Japanese War.[15]: 185
Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million residents in Manchuria "Manchus", including Han Chinese. The Japanese-authored "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China.[131]: 2000 In 1942, the Japanese-authoredTen Year History of the Construction of Manchukuo emphasized the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchus' claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing dynasty and returned only later.[131]: 255
In 1952, after the failure of both Manchukuo and theNationalist Government (KMT), the newborn People's Republic of China officially recognized the Manchu as one of the ethnic minorities asMao Zedong had criticized theHan chauvinism that dominated the KMT.[1]: 277 In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu.[1]: 276 The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule became willing to reveal it, such as the writerLao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s.[1]: 280 Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority,[1]: 282 but this growth was due to people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.[1]: 283 Since the 1980s, thirteen Manchu autonomous counties have been created in Liaoning, Jilin, Hebei, and Heilongjiang.[132]
TheEight Banners system is one of the most important ethnic identity of today's Manchu people.[8]: 43 Manchus became more like an ethnic coalition which contains the descendants of Manchu bannermen and a large number of Manchu-assimilated Chinese and Mongol bannermen.[133][134][135][129]: 5 (Preface) However,Solon andSibe Bannermen, who were considered as part of Eight Banner system under the Qing dynasty, were registered as independent ethnic groups by the PRC government asDaur,Evenk,Nanai,Oroqen, and Sibe.[1]: 295
Since the 1980s, after theCultural Revolution, Manchu culture and language experienced a renaissance,[15]: 209, 215, 218–228 including amongHan Chinese.[136] Manchu culture and language preservation is promoted by theChinese Communist Party, and Manchus again became one of China's most socioeconomically advanced minorities.[137] Manchus generally face little to no discrimination in their daily lives, except among Han nationalist conspiracy theorists, whom claim that the CCP is occupied by Manchu elites and therefore Manchus receive better treatment under the People's Republic of China.[138]
Manchus were subjected to the sameone child policy and rules as Han people. Manchus, Koreans, Russians, Hui and Mongols in Inner Mongolia were subjected to restrictions of two children.[139]
Most Manchu people now live inMainland China with a population of 10,423,303, which is 8.19% of ethnic minorities and 0.74% of China's total population.[14] However, the modern population of Manchus has been artificially inflated very much, because Han Chinese of the Eight Banner System, includingbooi bondservants, are allowed to register as Manchu in modern China.[1]: 278 Among the provincial regions, there are two provinces,Liaoning andHebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents.[14] Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorities.[14] Manchus are the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei,Heilongjiang andBeijing; 2nd largest inJilin,Inner Mongolia,Tianjin,Ningxia,Shaanxi andShanxi and 3rd largest inHenan,Shandong andAnhui.[14]
Manchu people living outsidemainland China include approximately 12,000 Manchus inTaiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with theROC government in 1949. One notable example wasPuru, a famous painter and calligrapher who founded the Manchu Association of the Republic of China.
Manchu andqiren (旗人; bannermen) were declared legally equivalent in the 17th century. TheQianlong Emperor referred to all bannermen (whether Manchu orqiren) as Manchu, and referred to all civilians as Han ormin (民).[140] Modern China allows all members of theEight Banner System to register as Manchu, which inflates modern population numbers of Manchus by including non-Jurchen ancestral sources.[141]: 278 Additionally, as Manchu identity was traditionallypatrilineal, even if the mother was not Manchu, the child would be registered as Manchu as long as the father was in the Manchu banners.: 255 The Manchu banners were never genetically homogeneous, as ethnicity was fluid.[142]
Manchu identity itself was diverse. It comprised the Jianzhou and Haixi Jurchen tribes, and two Yeren Jurchen tribes.[143] TheHulun confederacy of the Haixi Jurchens had intermarried with theKhorchin andKharchin Mongols to such an extent that Nurhaci of the Jianzhou Jurchens described them as "Mongols" to denote their culture as alien and hostile.[144] The Jurchen tribes themselves also included people of Han Chinese descent. Han who had moved to Nurgan (in present-day Jilin Province) before 1618 and adopted the Jurchen culture and language were recognized as Jurchens and became part of the Manchu banners. These Han were known as "transfrontiersmen"[citation needed] and became part of the Jurchen elite. They had assimilated into Jurchen culture to the extent that their ancestry was the only thing that differentiated them from the Jurchens. Meanwhile, other Jurchens who had moved to Liaodong and had adopted Han customs and language were regarded as Han, and could became part of the Han banners but not the Manchu banners.[142]
Furthermore, the Manchu banners developed a division between the higher ranking "Old Manchus" formed of the main Jurchen tribes such as the Jianzhou and the lower ranking "New Manchus" (伊車滿洲/衣車滿洲;i'ce manju; or 新滿洲) from otherTungusic andMongolic tribes such as theDaur,Oroqen,Solon,Nanai,Udege, andSibe from the northeast who were incorporated into the Manchu banners by theShunzhi andKangxi Emperors after 1644.[140]
A study on the Manchu population ofLiaoning reported a close genetic relationship and significant admixture signals from Northern Han Chinese. The Liaoning Manchu were formed from a major ancestral component related toYellow River farmers and a minor ancestral component linked to ancient populations from theAmur River Basin, or others. The Manchu were therefore an exception to the coherent genetic structure of Tungusic-speaking populations, likely due to the large-scale population migrations.[145]
A 2010 study reported that in a sample of 111 Liaoning Manchus and 25 Heilongjiang Manchus, 25 Liaoning Manchus (22.52%) and 11 Heilongjiang Manchus (44.00%) hadY haplogroup C. The same study reported that in a sample of 115 Han Chinese fromShandong and 66 Han Chinese fromHenan, 13 of the Shandong Han (11.30%) and 8 of the Henan Han (12.12%) had haplogroup C, suggesting that the old Manchus might have had a higher proportion of haplogroup C than typically found in theChinese Central Plains. It also reported that Han Chinese in the three provinces of Manchuria (Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang) had higher proportions of Haplogroup C than the Shandong and Henan samples, suggesting that many Han Chinese in Manchuria could have paternal ancestry from native ethnic Manchurian groups. In this study, 22.50% of the Liaoning Han (9/40), 16.67% of the Jilin Han (14/84), and 15.32% of the Heilongjiang Han (19/124) had haplogroup C.[146]
The Y DNA of the royalAisin Gioro clan is believed to be C2b1a3a2-F8951, which is a subclade of C2a-L1373, the "northern" branch of haplogroup C2-M217. The Aisin Gioro paternal lineage is also closely related to that of the Ao clan of theDaghur ethnic group.[147] In the database of the Chinese DNA company 23Mofang, 1/3 of theGūwalgiya clan have haplogroup C-F11330, which also descended from the northern C2a-L1373.[148] In the 23Mofang database, 40% of theYehe Nara clan have haplogroup C, and 20% have C-MF46267, which descended from C-M407, the same branch asDayan Khan.[149][150] C-M407 is also predominant amongBuryats andOirats, suggesting that they may share similar paternal origins with the Yehe Nara clan.[151]
Manchus can be modeled as havingWest Liao River-related ancestry (83%) andIron Age Taiwan-related ancestry (17%). There's also no significant evidence of West Eurasian admixture in Manchus compared to their Tungusic neighbors. Overall, Manchus cluster with North Chinese, someYugurs and Koreans, who themselves cluster withJapanese.[152]
According to a 2023 study, Manchus are genetically distinct from Northeastern Han due to strict endogamy. Northeastern Han, in contrast, cluster with Han Chinese from the Central Plains and theSichuan Qiang population, suggesting historic miscegenation. The genetic distance between Manchus and Han Chinese also increase as one moves northwards from Liaoning towards Heilongjiang.[153]
The Manchus implemented measures to Manchufy the other Tungusic peoples living around theAmur River basin.[154]: 38 The southern Tungusic Manchus influenced the northern Tungusic peoples linguistically, culturally, and religiously.[154]: 242
"Banjin Inenggi" and Manchu linguistic activity by the government and students inChangchun, 2011
TheManchu language is aTungusic language and has many dialects. Standard Manchu originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens[155]: 246 and was officially standardized duringQianlong's reign.[156]: 40 During the Qing dynasty, Manchus at the imperial court were required to speak Standard Manchu or face the emperor's reprimand.[155]: 247 This applied equally to the palace presbyter for shamanic rites when performing sacrifice.[155]: 247
After the 19th century, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number of Manchu speakers was dwindling.[156]: 33 Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of the Manchu language, after the Qing dynasty collapsed, Manchu lost its status as a national language and its official use in education ended. Manchus generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100,[i][161] most of whom are to be found inSanjiazi (Manchu:ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᠪᠣᡠ, Möllendorff:ilan boo, Abkai:ilan bou), Heilongjiang Province.[162] Since the government workers, scholars, and social activists have begun to resurrect Manchu.: 218 With the help of governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools offer Manchu classes.[163][164][165] Manchu volunteers in many parts of China teach Manchu.[166][167][168][169] Thousands of non-Manchus have learned the language through these pathways.[170][171]
In an effort to save Manchu culture from extinction, the older generation of Manchus teach young people; often without charge.[172]
The Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchus, created Jurchen script during the Jin dynasty. After the Jin dynasty collapsed, the Jurchen script was gradually lost. In theMing dynasty, 60–70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters, while 30–40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.[173] This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming Empire. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded scholars Gagai and Eldeni to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.[174]: 4 They created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" (Manchu:ᡨᠣᠩᡴᡳ ᡶᡠᡴᠠ ᠠᡴᡡ ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ, Möllendorff:tongki fuka akū hergen, Abkai:tongki fuka akv hergen;无圈点满文) or "old Manchu script" (老满文).[175]: 3 (Preface) Due to its hurried creation, the script has defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.[176]: 5324–5327 [156]: 11–17 Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".[177]
The Manchu were sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops and practiced hunting and mounted archery.[178][64]: 24 note 1
The southern Tungusic Manchu sedentary lifestyle was different from the nomadic hunter gatherer forager lifestyle of their more northern Tungusic relatives like the Warka, which caused the Qing state to attempt to force them to adopt the sedentary farming lifestyle of the Manchus.[179][180]
the cover of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' Book
The history of Manchu family names follows the Jurchen family name.[181]: 109 However, after the Mongols extinguished the Jin dynasty, the Manchus started to adopt Mongol culture, including their custom of using only their given name until the end of the Qing dynasty,[181]: 107 a practice confounding non-Manchus, leading them to conclude, erroneously, that they do not have family names.[155]: 969
A Manchu family name usually has two portions: the first is "Mukūn" (ᠮᡠᡴᡡᠨ, Abkai: Mukvn) which literally means "branch name"; the second, "Hala" (ᡥᠠᠯᠠ), represents the clan name.[155]: 973 According to theBook of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans (八旗滿洲氏族通譜), Manchu's use 1,114 family names.Gūwalgiya,Niohuru,Hešeri, Šumulu, Tatara, Gioro,Nara are considered as "famous clans" (著姓) among Manchus.[182]
Stories tell of Han migrating to the Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society.Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this.[183] The Manchu Cuigiya (崔佳氏) clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan.[184] The Tohoro (托活络) clan (Duanfang's clan) claimed Han Chinese origin.[107][185][186][187]: 48 [188]
Manchus given names are distinctive. Generally, they take several forms, such as bearing suffixes "-ngga", "-ngge" or "-nggo", meaning "having the quality of";[155]: 979 bearingMongol style suffixes "-tai" or "-tu", meaning "having";: 243 [155]: 978 bearing the suffix, "-ju", "-boo";: 243 numerals: 243 [155]: 978 [j]} or animal names.[155]: 979 : 243 [k]}
Some ethnic names can be a given name. One of the common first name isNikan, which is also aManchu exonym for theHan Chinese.: 242 For example, Nikan Wailan was a Jurchen leader who was an enemy of Nurhaci.[187]: 172 [64]: 49 [190] Nikan was also the name of one of the Aisin-Gioro princes and grandsons of Nurhaci who supported Prince Dorgon.[154]: 99 [64]: 902 [191] Nurhaci's first son was Cuyen, one of whose sons was Nikan.[192]
Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,[l] a Chinese family name and Manchu given name[m] or both Manchu family and given names.[n]
The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants originally practicedcremation and almost all of them practice it today. Very few adopted the practice of burial from some Han Chinese.: 264 Princes were cremated on pyres.[193]
The traditional hairstyle for Manchu men is shaving the front of their heads while growing the hair on the back of their heads into a single braid called aqueue (辮子;biànzi), known assoncoho in Manchu. During the Qing dynasty, the queue was legally mandated for male Ming Chinese subjects. The Ming were to shave their foreheads and begin growing the queue within ten days of the order. If they refused to comply they were executed for treason. Throughout the rest of the Qing dynasty, the queue was seen as a loyalty signal as it showed who had submitted. As the Qing dynasty came to an end, the hairstyle shifted from a symbol of loyalty to a symbol of feudalism, which led many men to cut off their cues as a statement of rebellion. These acts gave China a step toward modernization and moved it away from imperial rule as China began to adopt more of Western culture, including fashion and appearance.
Manchu women wore their hair in a distinctive hairstyle calledliangbatou (兩把頭).
Han and Manchu clothing coexisted during Qing dynastyHan Chinese clothing in early Qing
A common misconception among Han Chinese held that Manchu clothing was distinct fromHanfu.[154] Manchu clothes were actually modified MingHanfu, despite Manchu efforts to present their attire as unique.[154] Lacking their own textiles, Manchus initially acquired Mingdragon robes and cloth through tribute or trade. They adapted these robes by narrowing sleeves with fur cuffs and adding slits to the skirt for falconry, horse riding, and archery.[194]: 157 A strip of cloth was added at the waist, with the skirt pleated for a snug fit.[194]: 159 Sable fur was incorporated into skirts, cuffs, and collars, trimming Ming dragon robes.[195] Manchus modified Han Chinese court costumes by adding a large ceremonial collar (da-ling) or shawl collar (pijian-ling).[196] The belief that Manchu hunting attire evolved into Qing clothing arose from comparing the straight-cut Ming garments with the irregularly shaped Qinglong pao andchao fu. Western scholars mistakenly viewed these as purely Manchu. Excavations from Ming tombs, such as the Wanli emperor's, revealedchao fu robes with embroidered or woven dragons, similar to Qingchao fu, but distinct fromlong pao dragon robes. Flared skirts with right-side fastenings and fitted bodices were found in Beijing, Shanxi, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, and Shandong tombs of Ming officials and imperial family.[197]: 103 Mingchao fu upper sleeves had two attached cloth pieces, a feature retained in Qingchao fu with sleeve extensions. Qinglong pao resembled Yuan dynasty clothing, such as robes from Li Youan's Shandong tomb, with flared hems and tight arms and torso.[197]: 104 Ming robes drew from earlier Han Chinese dynasties, while Qingchao fu appeared in official portraits, unlike Mingchao fu, suggesting they were worn under formal robes. In Japan'sNara, the Shosoin repository at Todaiji temple holds 30 Tang dynasty short coats (hanpi), influencing Ming dragon robes. These consist of a skirt and bodice with distinct fabrics and patterns, shaping Qingchao fu.[197]: 105 Cross-over closures appear in bothhanpi and Ming garments. Tombs from theHan dynasty andJin dynasty (266–420) in Yingban, near theTianshan mountains inXinjiang, contain clothing resembling Qinglong pao and Tanghanpi, indicating a long-standing Chinese garment tradition influencing Qingchao fu.[197]: 106 Ming robes, the basis for Qingchao fu, were prestigious burial attire despite rare depiction in portraits. Qing rulers emulated ancient Chinese practices to assert legitimacy, reviving rituals and designing sacrificial vessels closer to ancient Chinese models than Ming ones.[197]: 106 Tungusic groups like theUdeghe,Ulchi, andNanai on theAmur River adopted Chinese influences, including dragon-adorned ceremonial robes, scroll and spiral designs, and technologies like silk, cotton, and heated houses.[198] TheSpencer Museum of Art holds sixlong pao robes of Han ChineseQing nobility.[197]: 115 Han Chinese and Manchu nobles had two skirt slits, while the imperial family had four. Qing sumptuary laws permitted nine dragons for first- to third-rank officials and nobles, with four-clawed dragons for officials and nobles, and five-clawed dragons for the imperial family. Han Chinese nobles' robes at the Spencer Museum feature five-clawed dragons, violating these laws.[197]: 117
Han Chinese general Zhang Zhiyuan in Qing military attire.[194]: 149
Early Manchu clothing followed Jurchen tradition, favoring white.[199] Robes, designed for archery, were the most common garment.[200]: 17 A surcoat, derived from the Eight Banners military uniform, was often worn over the robe, gaining popularity among commoners during theKangxi period.[200]: 30–31 Modern Chinese suits like theCheongsam andTangzhuang evolved from these.[200]: 17 [201] Manchu hats, worn year-round by all ages, contrasted with Han Chinese custom of wearing hats from age 20.[200]: 27–28 Formal hats used straw for spring and summer, fur for fall and winter, while casual hats were called Mandarin hats in English.[200] Manchu women traditionally wore three earrings per ear, a practice continued by some older women.[202] Men wore one earring in youth, but none as adults.[181]: 20 Thefergetun, a thumb ring originally made from reindeer bone for archery, became decorative, with valuable versions in jade or ivory after 1644.[203] High-heeled shoes were common among Manchu women.[202]
Riding and archery (Manchu:ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠮᠨᡳᠶᠠᠨ, Möllendorff:niyamniyan, Abkai:niyamniyan) are significant to Manchus. They were well-trained horsemen.[204]Huangtaiji said, "Riding and archery are the most important martial arts of our country".[174]: 46 [82]: 446 The Qing dynasty treasured riding and archery.[205]: 108 Every spring and fall, ordinary Manchus to aristocrats took riding and archery tests. The results could affect their rank in thenobility.[205]: 93 The Manchus of the early Qing dynasty had excellent shooting skills and their arrows were reputed to be capable of penetrating two bodies.[205]: 94
In the middle period of the Qing dynasty, archery became more a form of entertainment such as hunting swans, shooting fabric or silk targets. The most difficult was shooting a candle hanging in the air at night.[205]: 95 Gambling was banned, but archery contests were not limited. It was common for Manchus to put signs in front of their houses to invite challenges.[205]: 95 After theQianlong period, Manchus gradually neglected riding and archery, even though their rulers did encourage Manchus to continue their traditions.[205]: 94 These traditions are still practiced among some Manchus.[206]
Manchu wrestlers competed in front of the Qianlong Emperor
Manchu wrestling (Manchu:ᠪᡠᡴᡠ, Möllendorff:buku, Abkai:buku)[59]: 118 is an important martial art of the Manchu people.[59]: 142 Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word,bökh.[59]: 118 Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling, which emerged from Khitan wrestling, which was similar to Mongolian wrestling.[59]: 120 In theYuan dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture includingbökh.[59]: 119 In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practisebuku as part of military training.[59]: 121 At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By theChongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers[59]: 123 and in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wrestlers.[59]: 137 The Qing court established the Shan Pu Battalion and chose 200 wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling,shuai jiao, which is its most important part.[59]: 153 Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted the most Manchu wrestling moves.[207]
As a result of their hunting traditions, Manchus are interested in falconry.[205]: 106 Gyrfalcon (Manchu:ᡧᠣᠩᡴᠣᡵᠣ, Möllendorff:šongkoro, Abkai:xongkoro) is the most highly valued discipline in Manchu falconry.[205]: 107 In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.[205]: 107 Professional falconers lived in Ningguta area (today's Heilongjiang province and the northern part of Jilin province).[205]: 106 Beijing's Manchus also practice falconry. Compared to Manchuria, it is more of an entertainment.[205]: 108 The Imperial Household Department of Beijing kept professional falconers. They provided falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt each fall.[205]: 108 Manchu traditional falconry continues to be practised in some regions.[208]
The performance of Manchu palace skaters on holiday
Ice skating (Manchu:ᠨᡳᠰᡠᠮᡝ ᡝᡶᡳᡵᡝ ᡝᡶᡳᠨ[citation needed], Möllendorff:nisume efire efin, Abkai:nisume efire efin) is another Manchu pastime. TheQianlong Emperor called it a "national custom".[209] It was one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,[210] performed by the "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" (八旗冰鞋营)[210] which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.[210] The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In theJiaqing period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion (精捷营) originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion".[210]
In the 1930s–1940s, Wu Tongxuan was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters inEmpress Dowager Cixi's regency.[211] He appeared in many Beijing skating rinks.[211] Twentieth century Manchu figure skaters include world championsZhao Hongbo andTong Jian.[citation needed]
TheTale of the Nisan Shaman (Manchu:ᠨᡳᡧᠠᠨ ᠰᠠᠮᠠᠨ ᡳ ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ, Möllendorff:nišan saman i bithe, Abkai:nixan saman-i bithe;尼山萨满传) is the most important piece of Manchu literature.[212]: 3 It primarily recounts how Nisan Shaman helps revive a young hunter.[212]: Preface The story spread to Xibe, Nanai, Daur, Oroqen, Evenk and other Tungusic peoples.[212]: 3 It has four versions: a handwritten version from Qiqihar; two handwritten versions from Aigun; and one by Manchu writer Dekdengge inVladivostok (Manchu:ᡥᠠᡳᡧᡝᠨᠸᡝᡳ, Möllendorff:haišenwei, Abkai:haixenwei[212]: 1 ). The four versions are similar, but Haišenwei's is the most complete.[212]: 7 It has been translated into Russian, Chinese, English and other languages.[212]: 3
Octagonal drum is a type of Manchu folk art that was popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.[129]: 147 It is said that octagonal drum originated with the snare drum of the Eight-banner military and the music was made by banner soldiers on the way home from victory in the battle of Jinchuan.[129]: 147 The drum is composed of wood surrounded by bells. The drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.[129]: 147 The colors of the tassels are yellow, white, red, and blue, which represent the four colors of theEight Banners.[205]: 124 Drummers use their fingers to hit the drumhead and shake the drum to ring the bells.[129]: 147 Traditionally, octagonal drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the third is the singer.[129]: 147
After the fall of the Qing, the influence of the octagonal drum gradually declined. However, theChinese monochord [zh][129]: 149 andcrosstalk[213] which incorporates octagonal drum, remain popular in Chinese society. Many famous Chinese monochord performers and crosstalkers were artists of octagonal drum, such as De Shoushan and Zhang Sanlu.[205]: 113
Ulabun (ᡠᠯᠠᠪᡠᠨ) is a form of Manchu storytelling entertainment.[214] Ulabun is popular among the Manchu people living in Manchuria. It has two main categories; one is popular folk literature such as theTale of the Nisan Shaman, the other is from folk music with an informative and independent plot.[214]
Originally, Manchus and their predecessors were principallyBuddhists withShamanist influences. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, Manchus adopted Confucianism from Chinese culture along with Buddhism and discouraged shamanism.
Shamanism has along history in Manchu civilization and influenced it over thousands of years.John Keay states inA History of China thatshaman is the single loan-word from Manchurian into the English language.[citation needed] After theconquest of China, although Manchus officially adopted Buddhism and widely adopted Chinese folk religion, Shamanic traditions could still be found in soul worship,totem worship, belief in nightmares and apotheosis of philanthropists.[129]: 98–106 Apart from Shamanic shrines in the Qing palace, no temples erected for worship of Manchu gods could be found in Beijing.[129]: 95 Thus, the story of competition between Shamanists andLamaists was often heard in Manchuria, but the Manchu emperors officially helped Lamaists.[129]: 95
Jurchens, the predecessors of the Manchus adopted theBuddhism ofBalhae,Goryeo,Liao andSong in the 10–13th centuries,[215] so it was familiar to the Manchus. Qing emperors were always entitled "Buddha". They were regarded asMañjuśrī inTibetan Buddhism[21]: 5 and had high attainments.[215][129]: 95
Hong Taiji who was of Mongolian descent started leaning towardsChan Buddhism, the Chinese form known in Japan as Zen Buddhism. Still, Huangtaiji patronized Tibetan Buddhism extensively and publicly.[64]: 203 [216] Huangtaiji patronized Buddhism but allegedly felt Tibetan Buddhism to be inferior to Chan Buddhism.[216]
The Qianlong Emperor's faith in Tibetan Buddhism was later questioned because the emperor indicated that he supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan BuddhistGelukpa sect)[217]: 123–4
This policy of only supporting the "Yellow Hats" was used to deflect Han criticism by the Qianlong Emperor, who had the "Lama Shuo" stele engraved in Tibetan, Mongol, Manchu and Chinese, which said: "By patronizing the Yellow Church we maintain peace among the Mongols."[218][219] It seems he was wary of the rising power of the Tibetan K,ingdom and its influence over the Mongolians and Manchu public, princes and generals.
Manchus were affected byChinese folk religions for most of the Qing dynasty.[129]: 95 Save forancestor worship, the gods they consecrated were virtually identical to those of the Han Chinese.[129]: 95 Guan Yu worship is a typical example. He was considered to be the God Protector of the Nation and was worshipped by Manchus. They referred to him as "Lord Guan" (关老爷). Uttering his name was taboo.[129]: 95 In addition, Manchus worshippedCai Shen and theKitchen God just as the Han Chinese did. The worship of Mongolian and Tibetan gods was also reported.[129]: 95
Influenced by theJesuit missionaries in China, many Manchus adopted Catholicism.[205]: 183 The earliest Manchu Catholics appeared in the 1650s.[205]: 183 In the Yongzheng eras, Depei, the Hošo Jiyan Prince, was aCatholic whose baptismal name was "Joseph". His wife was baptised and named "Maria".[205]: 184 The sons ofDoro Beile Sunu also became devout Catholics.[205]: 184 [220] In the Jiaqing period, Tong Hengšan and Tong Lan were Catholic Manchu Bannermen.[205]: 184 These Manchu Catholics were persecuted by Qing emperors but they refused to renounce their faith.[205]: 184 Manchu Catholics continued in modern times, too, such asYing Lianzhi, the founder ofFu Jen Catholic University.
Manchus celebrated many traditional holidays. Some are derived from Chinese culture, such as the "Spring Festival"[221] andDuanwu Festival.[222] Some are of Manchu origin. Food Exhaustion Day (绝粮日), on every 26th day of the 8th month of the lunar calendar, is another example that was inspired by a story that onceNurhaci and his troops were in a battle and almost running out of food. The villagers who lived nearby heard of the emergency and came to help. Soldiers usedperilla leaves to wrap rice. Afterwards, they won the battle. To encourage later generations to remember this hardship, Nurhaci made this day "Food Exhaustion Day". Traditionally, Manchus eat perilla orcabbage wraps with rice, scrambled eggs, beef or pork.[223] Banjin Inenggi (ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠨ ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ), on the 13th day of the tenth month of the lunar calendar, which started to be celebrated in late 20th century, is the anniversary of the creation of the Manchu name.[17]: 49 On that day in 1635,Hong Taiji changed the group's name from Jurchen to Manchu.[82]: 330–331 [224]
^Modern China permits Han Chinese members of the Eight Banner System to register as Manchu, thus heavily inflating the modern population of Manchus.[1]: 278
^Also known asMan,[7]Bannermen,[8]: 13–15 [9] orBanner people.[8]: 15 They are sometimes calledred-tasseled Manchus (Chinese:红缨满洲;pinyin:Hóngyīng Mǎnzhōu), a reference to the ornamentation on traditional Manchu hats.[10]: 79 [11]
^Fengcheng and Beizhen are cities but treated as Manchu autonomous counties.[15]: 207
^The meaning of "daicing" (daiqing) is debatable. It has been reported that the word was imported from Mongolian means "fighting country"[83]
^Autonomous counties are shown in bright green. Counties with autonomous townships are in dark green, with the number of Manchu township in each county shown in red (or yellow). So are another 2 pictures.
^Less than 100 native speakers.[157] Several thousands can speak Manchu as second language through primary education or free classes for adults in China.[158][159][160]
^e.g. Nadanju (70 in Manchu), Susai (5 in Manchu), Liošici(67, a Mandarin homophone) and Bašinu(85, a Mandarin homophone)[8]: 243
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