 Replica of the Baby at theScience and Industry Museum inCastlefield, Manchester | |
| Also known as | Small-Scale Experimental Machine |
|---|---|
| Developer | Frederic Calland Williams Tom Kilburn Geoff Tootill |
| Product family | Manchester computers |
| Released | 21 June 1948; 77 years ago (1948-06-21) |
| Memory | 1kibibit (1,024 bits) |
| Successor | Manchester Mark 1 |
TheManchester Baby, also called theSmall-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM),[1] was the first electronicstored-program computer. It was built at theVictoria University of Manchester byFrederic C. Williams,Tom Kilburn, andGeoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[2]
The Baby was not intended to be a practical computing engine, but was instead designed as atestbed for theWilliams tube, the first trulyrandom-access memory. Described as "small and primitive" 50 years after its creation, it was the first working machine to contain all the elements essential to a modern electronic digital computer.[3] As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a full-scale operational machine, theManchester Mark 1. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for theFerranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.[4][5]
The Baby had a 32-bitword length and amemory of 32 words (1kibibit, 1,024 bits). As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in hardware weresubtraction andnegation; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The first of three programs written for the machine calculated the highestproper divisor of 218 (262,144), by testing every integer from 218 downwards. This algorithm would take a long time to execute—and so prove the computer's reliability, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for about 52 minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed about 3.5 million operations (for an effective CPU speed of about 1100instructions per second).[2]
The first design for a program-controlled computer wasCharles Babbage'sAnalytical Engine in the 1830s, withAda Lovelace conceiving the idea of the first theoretical program to calculateBernoulli numbers. A century later, in 1936, mathematicianAlan Turing published his description of what became known as aTuring machine, a theoretical concept intended to explore the limits of mechanical computation. Turing was not imagining a physical machine, but a person he called a "computer", who acted according to the instructions provided by a tape on which symbols could be read and written sequentially as the tape moved under a tape head. Turing proved that if an algorithm can be written to solve a mathematical problem, then a Turing machine can execute that algorithm.[6]
Konrad Zuse'sZ3 was the world's first workingprogrammable, fully automatic computer, with binary digital arithmetic logic, but it lacked the conditional branching of a Turing machine. On 12 May 1941, the Z3 was successfully presented to an audience of scientists oftheDeutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt ("German Laboratory for Aviation") inBerlin.[7] The Z3 stored its program on an external tape, but it was electromechanical rather than electronic. The earliest electronic computing devices were theAtanasoff–Berry computer (ABC), which was successfully tested in 1942, and theColossus of 1943, but neither was a stored-program machine.[8][9]
TheENIAC (1946) was the first automatic computer that was both electronic and general-purpose. It wasTuring complete, with conditional branching, and programmable to solve a wide range of problems, but its program was held in the state of switches in patch cords, rather than machine-changeable memory, and it could take several days to reprogram.[3] Researchers such as Turing and Zuse investigated the idea of using the computer's memory to hold the program as well as the data it was working on,[10] and it was mathematicianJohn von Neumann who wrote a widely distributed paper describing that computer architecture, still used in almost all computers.[11]
The construction of a von Neumann computer depended on the availability of a suitable memory device on which to store the program. During the Second World War researchers working on the problem of removing the clutter fromradar signals had developed a form ofdelay-line memory, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line,[12] developed byJ. Presper Eckert. Radar transmitters send out regular brief pulses of radio energy, the reflections from which are displayed on a CRT screen. As operators are usually interested only in moving targets, it was desirable to filter out any distracting reflections from stationary objects. The filtering was achieved by comparing each received pulse with the previous pulse, and rejecting both if they were identical, leaving a signal containing only the images of any moving objects. To store each received pulse for later comparison it was passed through a transmission line, delaying it by exactly the time between transmitted pulses.[13]
Turing joined theNational Physical Laboratory (NPL) in October 1945,[14] by which time scientists within theMinistry of Supply had concluded that Britain needed a National Mathematical Laboratory to co-ordinate machine-aided computation.[15] A Mathematics Division was set up at the NPL, and on 19 February 1946 Turing presented a paper outlining his design for an electronic stored-program computer to be known as theAutomatic Computing Engine (ACE).[15] This was one of several projects set up in the years following the Second World War with the aim of constructing a stored-program computer. At about the same time,EDVAC was under development at theUniversity of Pennsylvania'sMoore School of Electrical Engineering, and theUniversity of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory was working onEDSAC.[16]
The NPL did not have the expertise to build a machine like ACE, so they contactedTommy Flowers at theGeneral Post Office's (GPO)Dollis Hill Research Laboratory. Flowers, the designer of Colossus, the world's first programmable electronic computer, was committed elsewhere and was unable to take part in the project, although his team did build some mercury delay lines for ACE.[15] TheTelecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) was also approached for assistance, as wasMaurice Wilkes at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory.[15]
The government department responsible for the NPL decided that, of all the work being carried out by the TRE on its behalf, ACE was to be given the top priority.[15] NPL's decision led to a visit by the superintendent of the TRE's Physics Division on 22 November 1946, accompanied byFrederic C. Williams and A. M. Uttley, also from the TRE.[15] Williams led a TRE development group working on CRT stores for radar applications, as an alternative to delay lines.[17] Williams was not available to work on the ACE because he had already accepted a professorship at theVictoria University of Manchester, and most of his circuit technicians were in the process of being transferred to the Department of Atomic Energy.[15] The TRE agreed to second a small number of technicians to work under Williams' direction at the university, and to support another small group working with Uttley at the TRE.[15]
Although some early computers such as EDSAC, inspired by the design of EDVAC, later made successful use of mercurydelay-line memory,[18] the technology had several drawbacks: it was heavy, it was expensive, and it did not allow data to be accessed randomly. In addition, because data was stored as a sequence of acoustic waves propagated through amercury column, the device's temperature had to be very carefully controlled, as the velocity of sound through a medium varies with its temperature. Williams had seen an experiment atBell Labs demonstrating the effectiveness ofcathode-ray tubes (CRT) as an alternative to the delay line for removing ground echoes from radar signals. While working at the TRE, shortly before he joined the University of Manchester in December 1946, he and Tom Kilburn had developed a form of electronic memory known as theWilliams tube or Williams–Kilburn tube, based on a standard CRT: the first electronic random-access digital storage device.[19] The Baby was designed to show that it was a practical storage device by demonstrating that data held within it could be read and written reliably at a speed suitable for use in a computer.[20]
For use in abinary digital computer, the tube had to be capable of storing either one of two states at each of its memory locations, corresponding to the binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. It exploited the positive or negativeelectric charge generated by displaying either a dash or a dot at any position on the CRT screen, a phenomenon known assecondary emission. A dash generated a positive charge, and a dot a negative charge, either of which could be picked up by a detector plate in front of the screen; a negative charge represented 0, and a positive charge 1. The charge dissipated in about 0.2 seconds, but it could be automatically refreshed from the data picked up by the detector.[21]
The Williams tube used in Baby was based on the CV1131, a commercially available 12-inch (300 mm) diameter CRT, but a smaller 6-inch (150 mm) tube, the CV1097, was used in the Mark I.[22]
After developing theColossus computer for code breaking atBletchley Park during World War II,Max Newman was committed to the development of a computer incorporating bothAlan Turing's mathematical concepts and the stored-program concept that had been described byJohn von Neumann. In 1945, he was appointed to the Fielden Chair of Pure Mathematics at Manchester University; he took his Colossus-project colleaguesJack Good and David Rees to Manchester with him, and there they recruited F. C. Williams to be the "circuit man" for a new computer project for which he had secured funding from theRoyal Society.[23]
Having secured the support of the university, obtained funding from the Royal Society, and assembled a first-rate team of mathematicians and engineers, Newman now had all elements of his computer-building plan in place. Adopting the approach he had used so effectively at Bletchley Park, Newman set his people loose on the detailed work while he concentrated on orchestrating the endeavor.
— David Anderson, historian[23]
Following his appointment to the Chair of Electrical Engineering at Manchester University, Williams recruited his TRE colleagueTom Kilburn on secondment. By the autumn of 1947 the pair had increased the storage capacity of the Williams tube from one bit to 2,048, arranged in a 64 by 32-bit array,[24] and demonstrated that it was able to store those bits for four hours.[25] Engineer Geoff Tootill joined the team on loan from TRE in September 1947, and remained on secondment until April 1949.[26]
Now let's be clear before we go any further that neither Tom Kilburn nor I knew the first thing about computers when we arrived at Manchester University ... Newman explained the whole business of how a computer works to us.
Kilburn had a hard time recalling the influences on his machine design:
[I]n that period, somehow or other I knew what a digital computer was ... Where I got this knowledge from I've no idea.
Jack Copeland explains that Kilburn's first (pre-Baby) accumulator-free (decentralized, in Jack Good's nomenclature) design was based on inputs from Turing, but that he later switched to an accumulator-based (centralized) machine of the sort advocated by von Neumann, as written up and taught to him by Jack Good and Max Newman.[27]
The Baby's seven operationinstruction set was approximately a subset of the twelve operation instruction set proposed in 1947 by Jack Good, in the first known document to use the term "Baby" for this machine.[28] Good did not include a "halt" instruction, and his proposed conditional jump instruction was more complicated than what the Baby implemented.[27]
Although Newman played no engineering role in the development of the Baby, or any of the subsequentManchester computers, he was generally supportive and enthusiastic about the project, and arranged for the acquisition of war-surplus supplies for its construction, includingGPO metal racks[29] and "...the material of two complete Colossi"[30] from Bletchley. The construction of the Manchester Baby began in December 1947, when the CRT memory produced static pictures. The group needed to check that they could be changed and properly recorded at electronic speeds.[31] Racks and Colossi parts were modified and assembled into chassis by Norman Stanley Hammond and others.[32]
By June 1948 the Baby had been built and was working.[24] It was 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) tall, and weighed almost 1long ton (1.0 t). The machine contained 550 valves (vacuum tubes)—300 diodes and 250 pentodes—and had a power consumption of 3500 watts.[33] The arithmetic unit was built usingEF50 pentode valves, which had been widely used during wartime.[25] The Baby used one Williams tube to provide 32 by 32-bitwords ofrandom-access memory (RAM), a second to hold a 32-bitaccumulator in which the intermediate results of a calculation could be stored temporarily, and a third to hold the current programinstruction along with itsaddress in memory. A fourth CRT, without the storage electronics of the other three, was used as the output device, able to display the bit pattern of any selected storage tube.[34]
Each 32-bit word of RAM could contain either a program instruction or data. In a program instruction, bits 0–12 represented the memory address of theoperand to be used, and bits 13–15 specified theoperation to be executed, such as storing a number in memory; the remaining 16 bits were unused.[34] The Baby'ssingle operand architecture meant that the second operand of any operation was implicit: the accumulator or the program counter (instruction address); program instructions specified only the address of the data in memory.
A word in the computer's memory could be read, written, or refreshed, in 360 microseconds. An instruction took four times as long to execute as accessing a word from memory, giving an instruction execution rate of about 700 per second. The main store was refreshed continuously, a process that took 20 milliseconds to complete, as each of the Baby's 32 words had to be read and then refreshed in sequence.[24]
The Baby represented negative numbers usingtwo's complement,[35] as most computers still do. In that representation, the value of themost significant bit denotes the sign of a number; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one. Thus, the range of numbers that could be held in each 32-bit word was −231 to +231 − 1 (decimal: −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647).
The Baby's instruction format had a three-bitoperation code field, which allowed a maximum of eight (23) different instructions. In contrast to the modern convention, the machine's storage was described with theleast significant digits to the left; thus a one was represented in three bits as "100", rather than the more conventional "001".[35]
| Binary code | Original notation | Modern mnemonic | Operation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 000 | S, Cl | JMP S | Jump to the instruction at the address obtained from the specified memory address S[a] (absolute unconditional indirect jump) |
| 100 | Add S, Cl | JRP S | Jump to the instruction at the program counter plus (+) the relative value obtained from the specified memory address S[a] (relative unconditional jump) |
| 010 | -S, C | LDN S | Take the number from the specified memory address S, negate it, and load it into the accumulator |
| 110 | c, S | STO S | Store the number in the accumulator to the specified memory address S |
| 001 or 101[b] | SUB S | SUB S | Subtract the number at the specified memory address S from the value in accumulator, and store the result in the accumulator |
| 011 | Test | CMP | Skip next instruction if the accumulator contains a negative value |
| 111 | Stop | STP | Stop |
The awkward negative operations were a consequence of the Baby's lack of hardware to perform any arithmetic operations exceptsubtraction andnegation. It was considered unnecessary to build anadder before testing could begin as addition can easily be implemented by subtraction,[34] i.e.x+y can be computed as −(−x−y). Therefore, adding two numbers together, X and Y, required four instructions:[36]
LDN X // load negative X into the accumulatorSUB Y // subtract Y from the value in the accumulatorSTO S // store the result at SLDN S // load negative value at S into the accumulator
Programs were entered in binary form by stepping through each word of memory in turn, and using a set of 32 buttons and switches known as the input device to set the value of each bit of each word to either 0 or 1. The Baby had nopaper-tape reader or punch.[37][38][39]
Three programs were written for the computer. The first, consisting of 17 instructions, was written by Kilburn, and so far as can be ascertained first ran on 21 June 1948.[40] It was designed to find the highestproper factor of 218 (262,144) by trying every integer from 218 − 1 downwards. The divisions were implemented by repeated subtractions of the divisor. The Baby took 3.5 million operations and 52 minutes to produce the answer (131,072). The program used eight words of working storage in addition to its 17 words of instructions, giving a program size of 25 words.[41]
Geoff Tootill wrote an amended version of the program the following month, and in mid-July Alan Turing—who had been appointed as areader in the mathematics department at Manchester University in September 1948—submitted the third program, to carry outlong division. Turing had by then been appointed to the nominal post of Deputy Director of theComputing Machine Laboratory at the university,[40] although the laboratory did not become a physical reality until 1951.[42]
Williams and Kilburn reported on the Baby in a letter to the JournalNature, published in September 1948.[43] The machine's successful demonstration quickly led to the construction of a more practical computer, theManchester Mark 1, work on which began in August 1948. The first version was operational by April 1949,[42] and it in turn led directly to the development of theFerranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.[4]
In 1998, a working replica of the Baby, now on display at theMuseum of Science and Industry in Manchester, was built to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the running of its first program. Demonstrations of the machine in operation are held regularly at the museum.[44]
In 2008, an original panoramic photograph of the entire machine was discovered at the University of Manchester. The photograph, taken on 15 December 1948 by a research student, Alec Robinson, had been reproduced inThe Illustrated London News in June 1949.[45][46]
