Founded in 1819, Managua became the national capital in 1852.[2][3] The city underwent a rapid expansion and urbanization between 1842 and 1930, leading it to become one of the most developed cities in Central America. Several earthquakes have affected the city's growth, especially the1931 earthquake and the1972 earthquake, but the city has been rebuilt several times. Today, the city is a major economic hub for both the country and Central America.
Two possible origins for the name "Managua" have been proposed. It may have originated from the termMana-ahuac, which in theNahuatl language translates to "adjacent to the water" or "site surrounded by water" (referring toLake Managua.[2][3] Alternatively, it may have come from theMangue language, where the wordmanagua was said to mean "place of the big man" or "chief".[8]
Residents of the city are calledmanaguas,managüenses, orcapitalinos.
View of Managua in 1849, when it was a small fishing village
Nicaragua was inhabited byPaleo-Indians as far back as 12,000 BC.[9] Theancient footprints of Acahualinca are 2,100-year-old fossils[10] discovered along the shores ofLake Managua. Otherarcheological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, like the ones found on the island ofZapatera, andpetroglyphs found onOmetepe island, contribute to the increasing knowledge of Nicaragua's ancient history.
Founded as apre-Columbian fishing town, the city was incorporated in 1819 and given the nameLeal Villa de Santiago de Managua. Efforts to make Managua the capital of Nicaragua began in 1824, after the Central American nations formally attained their independence from Spain. Nicaragua became an independent nation in 1838. Managua's location between the rival cities of León and Granada made it a logical compromise site. Hence, Managua was officially selected as the nation's capital in 1852.[11]
Managua, circa 1910–19
Between 1852 and 1930, Managua underwent extensive urbanization, becoming a base of governance, infrastructure and services.[2] The city was hampered by major floods in 1876 and 1885. Managua had become Central America's most developed city. Today's references differentiate the pre-1970s Managua by labeling it asLa Antigua Ciudad, which in English translates to "The Ancient City" or "The Old City".
Adisastrous earthquake in 1931[12] destroyed much of the city, killing between 1,000 and 2,450 people.[13][14] A large fire in 1936 also destroyed much of the city. Under the rule ofAnastasio Somoza García and his family (1936–1979), the city was rebuilt and began to grow rapidly. New government buildings were erected, industry developed, and universities were established. The city's development caught the attention ofIrving Fields andAlbert Gamse, who composed a musical piece about the city that became popular in the 1940s through the performances ofFreddy Martin,Guy Lombardo andKay Kyser.[15]
Managua's progress came to a sudden halt after it suffered asecond major earthquake on December 23, 1972, which destroyed 90% of the city's downtown and killed more than 19,120 people.[16] Infrastructure was severely damaged and the restoration of buildings was nearly impossible and Managua's limited resources had to be directed to disaster relief purposes. Surviving fire squadrons and ambulance companies were not able to handle the increasing demand for their services. Some buildings burned to the ground, while the foundations of others simply gave way. Not able to rebuild quickly, the city directed emergency workers to clear away much of the city's ruins quickly while burying the deceased in mass graves. Residences, government buildings and entire avenues were demolished. Escaping the city center, earthquake victims found refuge in the outskirts of the city. In addition, corruption within theSomoza regime which allocated part of the relief funds hindered the reconstruction of the city's center which remains somewhat isolated from the rest of the capital.[citation needed]
Palacio Loma, Nicaragua's presidential residence, in the 1950s
TheNicaraguan Revolution of 1979 to overthrow the Somoza regime and the 11-year-longContra War of the 1980s further devastated the city and its economy. To make matters worse, a series of natural disasters, includingHurricane Mitch in 1998, made economic recovery more difficult. After winning the presidential election in 1990, theNational Opposition Union began the reconstruction of Managua in earnest. More than 300,000 Nicaraguans returned from abroad bringing their expertise and needed capital. Businesses mushroomed, new housing projects and schools were constructed, the airport was expanded and modernized, streets were widened, older malls were repaired and new ones were built, and buildings were cleaned up.[citation needed]
New governmental buildings, galleries, museums, apartment buildings, squares, promenades, monuments, boat tours onLake Managua, restaurants, nighttime entertainment, and broad avenues have resurrected part of downtown Managua's former vitality. Commercial activity, however, remains low.[citation needed] Residential and commercial buildings have been constructed on the outskirts of the city, in the same locales that were once used as refugee camps for those who were homeless after the earthquake. These booming locales have been of concern to the government because of their close proximity to Lake Managua.[citation needed]
The construction of a new sewer system and the redirecting ofwaste water to a new water treatment plant at Las Mercedes in Eastern Managua in May 2009 relieved previous concerns over water pollution and native wildlife, and brought some residents closer to the old city center and the rest of the mainland.[18]
Downtown Managua
In 2015,Dorotea Wilson organized the first Summit of Afro-descendant Women Leaders of the Americas, which took place in the city from 26–28 June.[19]
Managua is located on the southern shores ofLake Managua, also known as Lake Xolotlán. Lake Managua contains the same fish species as largerLake Cocibolca in southeastern Nicaragua, except for the freshwater sharks found exclusively in the latter. Once a Managuan scenic highlight, the lake has been polluted from the dumping of chemical and waste water since 1927. A new sewer system and the redirecting of waste water to a newwaste water treatment plant at Las Mercedes funded by the German government to decontaminate the lake was expected to be the largest in Central America and was inaugurated in 2009.[20][21]
These works of progress have relieved old concerns over water pollution and the endangering of native wildlife have brought some residents closer to the old city center and the rest of the mainland.[citation needed]
Managua's city area extends about 544 square kilometers (210 square miles), essentially south from the south shore of Lake Managua. The lakeshore is at an altitude of 55 meters (180 feet)above sea level, and the city climbs as it gets towards the Sierras de Managua further south where it is over 700 meters (2,297 feet) above sea level.
Geologically, the city lies on fault lines, thusseismologists predict that Managua will experience a severe earthquake every 50 years or less.[22]
Managua, due to its tropical climate, varied topography, rich fertile soils, and abundant rain and water sources, boasts a great variety offlora. Many different types of trees, some of which are not found elsewhere in the world, appear, includingchilamates,ceibos,pochotes,genízaros,tigüilotes,royal palms,piñuelas andmadroños (Nicaragua'snational tree) surround the city. During the rainy season (May to November), Managua becomes a lush city due to manypalms,bushes, and other plants and trees which dominate the city's appearance.[23]
Managua, like much of Western Nicaragua, except for the Sierras, has atropical climate with constant temperatures averaging between 28 and 32 °C (82 and 90 °F). UnderKöppen's climate classification, the city has atropical wet and dry climate (Aw). The city spends most of the year seeing strong heat and a bright shining sun. The temperature varies from 72 °F (22.2 °C) at night to 86 °F (30 °C) during the daytime. Temperatures are highest in March, April and May when the sun lies directly overhead and the summer rainfall has yet to begin. As stated before Managua only has two seasons, the dry and the rainy. The rainy season occurs between mid-May and mid-November, while the dry-season occurs between mid-November and the middle or end of May. During the dry season the countryside gets dull and even dusty.
Climate data for Managua (1961-1990, extremes 1952-present)
In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held auniversity degree.[28] In 2014, theNeil Armstrong Observatory was completed in Managua.[29] About 18 percent of Nicaragua's total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of the 18 percent.[citation needed]
TheNational Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) (Spanish:Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua) is the main state-funded public university of Nicaragua. UNAN was established in 1812 in the city ofLeón and its main campus is located in Managua. By government decree in 1983 the campus of the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua in León and Managua, became two separate entities; UNAN andUNAN-León.[30]
Managua is the economic center and a generator of services for the majority of the nation. The city, with a population exceeding one million inhabitants, houses many large national and international businesses. It is home to many factories which produce diverse products.[38] Multinational companies such asWal-Mart,Telefonica,Union Fenosa, andParmalat have offices and operations in Managua. The city's chief products include beer, coffee, pharmaceuticals, textiles, shoes, matches, construction products, etc. The main trading products are beef, coffee, cotton, and other crops.[22] Managua is also Nicaragua's main political, social, cultural, educational and economic hub. At the same time, the city is served by the Augusto C. Sandino International Airport, the country's primary international gateway, and regional Los Brasiles airport and Punta Huete military air base, recently renewed.
There is a large established local market system that caters to the majority of Nicaraguans. InMercado Roberto Huembes, Mercado Oriental, Mercado Israel Lewites and other locations one can find anything from household amenities, food, clothing, electronics, construction materials, and other contracting supplies. The markets enjoy a substantial amount of popularity, as many of the backpacking, ecotourism-focused tourists and tourists on-a-budget use these markets for their supplies and souvenirs.[42]
Managua is Nicaragua's cultural capital, boasting restaurants, theaters, museums, and shopping centers.[43] The city is also home to many communities of immigrants and ex-pats from countries including but not limited to Taiwan, China, Germany, the United States, Palestine, and Latin American countries.[citation needed]
Managua's most famous festival is that of its patron saintSanto Domingo de Guzmán.[45] It starts on the morning of August 1, when the "Bajada del Santo" (walk down of the saint) involves many joyful people walking and carrying the old statue of Santo Domingo from Las Sierritas Church in south Managua to another church across the city to the north, in the area destroyed by the 1972 earthquake. It remains here for ten days until the morning of August 10, when the "Subida del Santo" (walking up of the saint) returns the statue to Las Sierritas Church where it remains for the rest of the year. Thousands of people attend this event which involves dancing, eating, drinking and the marching of musical bands, mainly for traditions that date back to pre-colonial times, or to ask for personal miracles, make promises, or give thanks to the saint.[citation needed] During the parade many people dress up in typical costumes, masks and painted bodies. During the festival some people cover themselves in a mix of grease and motor oil to pay promises to the saints while others wear masks and costumes.[46]
Carnaval has been celebrated in Managua since 2002 asAlegría por la Vida (Joy for Life) and takes place in March. There is a different slogan or theme every year. This event is celebrated withparades,floats, live music, food and dancing as well as the march of the Carnival Queen.[47][48]
TheNational Library holds a great amount of volumes and affords abundant bibliographic information about the discovery and independence ofNicaragua. The National Palace of Culture has an exhibition of Nicaraguan art from the time previous to its independence. Inside the National Palace of Culture is the National Museum, containing archeological finds with some examples of pre-Columbian pottery, statues, and other findings.
Managua is home to an array ofart galleries which feature pieces by both national and international artists.[45]
Managua is home to many types of museums. Among theart museums are the Julio Cortázar Museum and the Archivo Fílmico de la Cinemateca Nacional.Natural history museums include the Museo del Departamento de Malacología UCA, Museo Gemológico de la Concha y el Caracol, and Museo Paleontológico "El Hato". The Santo Domingo de Guzmán Museum is ananthropology museum.History museums include the Museo de la Revolución, Museo Casa Hacienda San Jacinto and Museo Parque Loma de Tiscapa.
The Doctor Roberto Incer Barquero Library, located in Managua, is designated to promoteNicaraguan culture. The library has 67,000 books, free internet, a newspaper archive, and economic information from the Central Bank. The library also has a gallery in the same building, where notable Nicaraguan paintings, as well as pieces from new promising artists, are exhibited. In thenumismatic hall there is a permanent exhibition of Nicaraguan coins, bills, and memorial medals from throughout Nicaragua's history.[49]
Cultural centers in Managua include the Centro Cultural Nicaragüense Norteamericano (CCNN) (Nicaraguan-North American Culture Center), the Centro Cultural Chino Nicaragüense (Chinese Nicaraguan Culture Center), and theAlianza Francesa de Managua[50] (French Alliance of Managua), among others.
Managua features manybars,nightclubs,casinos,theaters andcinemas. Compared to western prices, alcoholic beverages, theater visits and cinema tickets are relatively inexpensive.[23] There are cinemas in all major shopping centers; screening both English- and Spanish-language films. Foreign embassies in Managua also sponsorfilm festivals.
Since the late 1990s and early 2000s, many casinos and karaoke bars opened and have remained popular attractions for Nicaraguans and foreign visitors. Popular music includes thePalo de Mayo,Merengue, Cumbia andLatin pop among other Latin music genres, as well asAmerican pop androck.Salsa dancing is a national pastime. Managua boasts a vibrant night life. Nightclubs and bars are abound in Managua, particularly, in the popular areas called "Zona Viva" located in the shopping mall "Galerías Santo Domingo", as well as very close by "Plaza Mi Viejo Santo Domingo" and "Plaza Familiar". Other popular areas are "Zona Hippos" behind the Hilton hotel near Metrocentro and "Zona Rosa".
Although promoting or practicinghomosexuality was illegal in Nicaragua,[51] there is a modestgay social scene in Managua.[52] As of March 2008, homosexuality is no longer illegal and no longer carries a prison sentence.
Baseball is by far Nicaragua's most popular sport, followed bysoccer andboxing. TheDennis Martínez National Stadium is home to many baseball games of Managua's Boer team. At the time of its construction in the late 1960s, it was the most modern stadium in Central America. The baseball league has 34 teams.
There has been growing amateur interest in little football or "futbolin" among teens and adults. New private courts have played a big role in the promotion of amateur games and tournaments. On the professional level, the National Nicaraguan Football team has still not had the public support nor the international exposure as the regional counterparts like the Costa Rican, Honduran or Salvadoran teams. However, with support of the FIFA, the first national soccer stadium in Managua is under construction.[53]
In Managua there are two golf courses, the better-known of which is Nejapa Golf & Country Club.
Managua is also home to thePolideportivo Alexis Argüello, an indoor arena with 8,500 seat capacity. The venue will host the2025 FIBA AmeriCup where their national basketball team will make their debut.
TheNational Palace is one of Managua's oldest buildings, undamaged by the 1972 earthquake. It was commissioned by PresidentJuan Bautista Sacasa in 1935 and built by architect Pablo Dambach, who also built the St. James Cathedral. For more than 50 years, the National Palace housed the Congress. Today, it houses theNational Archive, the National Library, as well as the National Museum which is open to the public. The museum featurespre-Columbian paintings, statues, ceramics, etc. Also part of the exhibit is the Hall of National History and the Hall of National Symbols. The National Palace was one of the few buildings that survived the1972 earthquake.[54]
TheRubén Darío National Theatre is Nicaragua's most important theater, and is one of the most modern theaters in Central America. Both national and international artists present shows, concerts, exhibitions, and cultural performances such asEl Güegüense among many others. The National Theatre is one of the few buildings that survived the 1972 earthquake that destroyed 90% of Managua.[55]
Plaza de la Revolución (Revolution Square), formerly known asPlaza de la República (Republic Square) is home to Managua's historic center and is located on the shores ofLake Managua. The plaza has been partially rebuilt and many old buildings have been refurbished. Some of the more important buildings which managed to survive the1972 Nicaragua earthquake include theCatedral de Santiago (St. James' Cathedral, known colloquially as the Old Cathedral), the Rubén Darío National Theatre, and the National Palace of Culture.[56]
Plaza de la Revolución
Within the Revolution Square is theParque Central (Central Park) which contains many historical monuments, some dedicated to national heroes and poets. Some of these include a centrally locatedArt Deco gazebo crowned with a white-washed nakedmuse, which happens to have superb acoustics. There is also the bust of Professor Josefa Toledo de Aguerri, who was an educator, philanthropist, writer, social activist, and one of the first feminists in the Americas. Also, the tomb ofCarlos Fonseca, founder of theFSLN, which is guarded by aneternal flame. Across from the Central Park, on the north side, is theRubén Darío park and monument, dedicated to Nicaragua's greatest poet and one of the most influential literary figures of the Spanish-speaking world. It is aneo-classical monument which consists of a round pedestal, topped by abalustrade surrounding a fountain containing a gondola filled with singingcherubs, and at the center, a pillar topped with a statue of Darío dressed in a Roman tunic protected by an angel. Constructed ofCarrara marble, Darío's monument is one of the greatest in the country. There is also a park dedicated to the Guatemalan writerMiguel Ángel Asturias. Other monuments include the monument ofEl Guerrillero sin Nombre (The Nameless Guerrilla Soldier) andMonumento à la Paz (Monument for Peace).[57]
Managua is also home toMuseo Sitio Huellas de Acahualinca (the Museum of Acahualinca), where theAncient footprints of Acahualinca, fossilizedPaleo American footprints made 2,100 years ago, are engraved in volcanic ash. The museum is located in west Managua in the Acahualinca neighborhood. In addition to the footprints, the museum also displays artifacts found in other localities around the country. Artifacts such asmammoth footprints, pre-Columbian tools, a skull fromLeón Viejo, and a small collection of pottery, among other archeological objects.[58]
Tiscapa Lagoon, located within theTiscapa Lagoon Natural Reserve, is just south of Managua's Historical Center. The reserve is located within Managua's city limits, and is atourist attraction. Restaurants and stores line the walls of the lagoon.
Leading up to the lagoon isCalle del Comercio (Commerce Street), which leads to theMonumento al Liberalismo (Monument to Liberalism), built in the late 1930s bythe Liberal party in honor of President Anastasio Somoza García. Nearby is the Monument to Sandino which is a silhouette ofAugusto C. Sandino, one of Nicaragua's national heroes. The monument stands 59 feet tall.[59] The monument was proposed byErnesto Cardenal and is protected by theNicaraguan military. The Sandino monument was constructed on top of the wreckage of the oldMozarabic-style presidential palace commissioned by President Sacasa in the late 1920s but long used by the Somoza Family as their personal residence. Also on the crater lip of Tiscapa is theMazmorras, a prison where current PresidentDaniel Ortega and many otherpolitical prisoners were tortured during the Somoza regime.[57]
TheDennis Martínez National Stadium was built in 1948 and was the largest stadium in Central America at the end of its construction. It survived the 1972 earthquake. The stadium was named in honor of Nicaragua's first baseball player to play inMajor League Baseball. It serves as a venue forbaseball andsoccer games, as well as concerts and religious events. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has a capacity for 40,000, making it the largest stadium in Nicaragua.[60]
TheCatedral de Santiago (St. James' Cathedral), also known as theOld Cathedral of Managua was designed byBelgian architects, and the iron that was used to shape the core of the cathedral was shipped from Belgium. Construction lasted from 1928 to 1938, overseen by Pablo Dambach, who was a Belgian engineer residing in Managua. The architects had been inspired by thechurch of Saint-Sulpice in Paris, France.[61] The St. James' Cathedral became the first cathedral in the Western Hemisphere to be built entirely of concrete on a metal frame.[citation needed] The cathedral survived the 1931 earthquake, but was heavily damaged during the 1972 earthquake, which eventually led to the construction of a new cathedral located in another part of Managua.[citation needed] Restoration of the old cathedral has appeared to be possible.[citation needed]
TheMetropolitan Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, more commonly referred to as the New Cathedral, was designed by architectRicardo Legorreta and inaugurated in 1993.[62] The New Cathedral was built to replace the Old Cathedral downtown that had been damaged during the 1972 earthquake. Upon the completion of its construction, the New Cathedral generated controversy among tourists and locals because of its bland and dull appearance. Critics pointed to the fact that buildings of particular importance, especially those of colonial heritage, were painted in bright colors. Such a building whose intention was to serve as a place of worship was expected to have some sort of vibrant color. Eventually, the church's original concrete and gray surface became accepted and Catholic pilgrims began to embrace the church as it was.
The German government funded the construction of a water treatment plant with plans to process the city's sewage and cleanLake Managua. Also pending is a mega-project to reconstruct the old center of Managua, and to introduce alight rail system, to alleviate future transportation problems in Managua.[63]
Neither Nicaragua nor the city of Managua have majorgang problems, in comparison to some of itsregional neighbors.[64][65][66] The number of gang members was estimated at 4,500 throughout the country, lower than all of its Northern neighbors in the region except Belize.[67] In 2003, theNational Police of Nicaragua recognized gangs committed only 0.51% of all crimes. In 1991, there were 110 gangs in Managua. Since, the number of gangs and gang members both decreased and increased to 34 gangs in 2005, with 706 members in Managua.[68]
Managua is the home of most national broadcasting television channels as well as the major national newspapers. Some of the larger television channels include:Canal 2,Telenica,Canal 10,Canal 15 (100% Noticias), and several others. There are numerous radio stations in Managua, some of which tend to have political, social, or religious affiliations.
Transportation-wise, Managua is one of Nicaragua's best positioned cities. All of Nicaragua's main roads lead to Managua, and there are good public transportation connections to and from the capital. There are four main highways that lead into Managua. ThePan-American Highway enters the city from the north, connecting Managua to Nicaragua's northern and central departments. This highway is commonly referred to as theNorthern Highway.
TheSouthern Highway, the southern part of the Pan-American highway, connects Managua to the southern departments ofCarazo,Rivas, and others.
TheCarretera A Masaya connects Managua to the departments ofMasaya andGranada.
The newly reconstructedCarretera A León connects Managua withLeón.
All of these highways are in good condition, with little traffic congestion. Infrastructure on the highways is well maintained. This also tends to be true for cities and towns that are served or are in close distance with the freeways. However, this does not yield truthfully for cities and towns that tend to be considerably further from the main highway roads. Nicaraguan bus companies, often referred to asChicken Buses, serve both urban and rural areas to remedy the lack of sufficient infrastructure that plagues these towns or villages.
Carretera a Masaya
Transportation infrastructure has grown outside of Managua and other Pacific coast cities and departments in recent years. A road from the river port city of El Rama to Pearl Lagoon, located in theSouth Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, was completed in 2007.[69] El Rama is connected by highway to Managua. Managua and Puerto Cabezas, located in theNorth Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region are also connected via road. A third road, under construction, will connect Bluefields,South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region with Managua via Nueva Guinea.[70] Traveling by airplane is more efficient than traveling by these roads due to the poor conditions, especially in the rainy season. Domestic flights are operated byLa Costeña from the international airport.
TheAugusto C. Sandino International Airport (formerly Managua International Airport) is the largest and only international airport in Nicaragua. It recently inaugurated its over US$52 million extension and renovation partly financed by Spain.[71] The airport was remodeled by architect Roberto Sansón[72] and has now been converted into one of the region's most modern airports. The airport used to serve as the hub for theNicaragüenses de Aviación airline, which was bought byTACA Airlines theEl Salvador national airline, that bought all of the airlines in Central America.
The airport, known as Aeropuerto Sandino or MGA to locals, serves as the primary hub for connections at both domestic and international levels.TACA Regional memberLa Costeña operates flights to local destinations likeBluefields, theCorn Islands andSan Carlos among others. The airport is located near the northern highway and is about 11 kilometers (6.8 mi) east of the city's downtown. Out of the country's one hundred and forty airports, it is the only one with the appropriate infrastructure and capacity to handle international flights.
There are 36 bus routes in Managua.[citation needed] These are regulated by the city's regulatory entity for municipal transports (IRTRAMMA) and individually operated by cooperatives and private companies. In addition there are two bus routes that formerly connected to outside parts of Managua, but these became now are part of the city (Esquipulas and Los Vanegas). And seven bus routes connect to the nearby Ciudad Sandino. Buses are the most economical way to get around the city and thus contributes to high numbers of ridership. Managua's prime location between the Northern Pan-American highway and the Southern Highway make it an ideal hub for local, national and international buses.
A transport map[73] of the city's 44 bus routes was created in 2016 in acrowdsourcing initiative by the NicaraguanOpenStreetMap community.[74]
Most bus coaches in Managua are fabricated byDINA S.A. andMercedes-Benz. One out of every ten buses now grants access towheelchair passengers, granting disabled passengers for the first time the ability to utilize public transportation resources.[75]
TransNica is a Nicaraguan bus company that operates international bus services throughout Central America. It competes extensively with its counterpart,TicaBus, a Costa Rican bus company. Managua serves as the company's hub, with buses departing from Managua toSan José, Costa Rica,Tegucigalpa,San Salvador andCholuteca.
There are no railroads that operate in Managua or in Nicaragua. The country's railroads fell into disrepair during the 1980s. TheChamorro government closed the system and sold the cars and rails for scrap.[citation needed]
The President of Nicaragua,Daniel Ortega, was presented with a plan to revitalize the city center.[citation needed] The project included the possibility of building ametro that would cross over the old center of the capital that remains rather unchanged since the 1972 earthquake. The metro would serve important locales, such as theAugusto C. Sandino International Airport and continue service to Ciudad Sandino. The project costs $100 million and has been considered as a possibility for the nation's capital.[citation needed]
^Schmidt K.M. and D.B.Kramer. 2010. Road development and market access on Nicaragua's Caribbean coast: implications for household fishing and farming practices. Environmental Conservation. 36(4):289–300.
^Salgado, J. 2011. Carretera unirá a Bluefields con Nueva Guinea. El Nuevo Diario. 11/05/2011
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