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.jpg) 5th-century terracotta sculpture of wrestlers fromUttar Pradesh, India. | |
| Focus | Wrestling |
|---|---|
| Country of origin | India |
| Famous practitioners | Krishna Bhima Jarasandha Siddhartha Gautama Narasimhavarman Krishna Deva Raya Deva Raya II |
| Descendant arts | Pehlwani Naban |
| Olympic sport | No |
| Meaning | Grappling-combat |
Malla-yuddha (Sanskrit: मल्लयुद्ध,IAST:mallayuddha) is the traditional form ofcombat-wrestling originating in theIndian subcontinent.[1] It is closely related to Southeast Asian wrestling styles such asnaban and is one of the two ancestors ofkushti. Indian wrestling is described in the 13th centuryMalla Purana.
Malla-yuddha incorporates wrestling, joint-breaking, punching, biting, choking andpressure point striking. Matches were traditionally codified into four types which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known asyuddha.[2] Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practised. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, still exists insouth India. Additionally, malla-yuddha is divided into four categories (see below). Each yuddhan is named after Hindu gods and legendary fighters:
InSanskrit,mallayuddha literally translates to "wrestling combat". Strictly speaking, the term denotes a single pugilistic encounter or prize-fight rather than a style or school of wrestling. It is atatpurusha compound ofmalla (wrestler, boxer, athlete) andyuddha orjuddho (fight, battle, conflict). The compound is first attested in theMahabharata referring to boxing matches such as those fought byBhima. Another word for a sportive wrestling match or athletic sports more generally ismalakhra. The second element,khra (sport, play, pastime, amusement) implies a more limited-contact style offolk wrestling rather than true grappling combat.
The termmalla was historically a proper name referring to, among other things, anasura known asmallāsura and the name of a tribe from theMalla Kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata. The name Malla was also used in this sense foran ancient mahajanapada, aNepalese dynasty descended from them, and theMallabhum kingdom in Bishnapur. In theManusmriti (10.22; 12.45), it is the technical term for the offspring of an out-castekshatriya by a kshatriya female who was previously the wife of another out-caste.
Wrestling is one of the oldest sporting activities in theIndian subcontinent, with indications that it was practiced in primitive forms as far back as 7000 BCE[2][3] making it the oldest known codified form of fighting in the region. Competitions held for entertainment were popular among all social classes, with even kings and other royalty taking part. Wrestlers represented their kings in matches between rival kingdoms; death matches before the royal court served as a way to settle disputes and avoid large-scale wars. As such, professional wrestlers were held in high regard. In pastoral communities, people would even wrestle against steers.
The first written attestation of the termmallayuddha is found in the epicRamayana, in the context of a wrestling match between thevanara-kingVali andRavana, the king ofLanka.Hanuman, a Ramayana character, is worshipped as the patron of wrestlers and general feats of strength. TheMahabharata epic also describes a wrestling match betweenBhima andJarasandha.[1] Other early literary descriptions of wrestling matches include the story ofBalarama andKrishna.
Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[4] He defeatedKamsa, king of Mathura, in a wrestling match and became new king in his place.Siddhartha Gautama himself was said to be an expert wrestler, archer and sword-fighter before becoming theBuddha. Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.[4] Later, the Pallava kingNarasimhavarman acquired the nickname Mahamalla meaning "great wrestler" for his passion and prowess in the art.
Competitions in medieval times were announced by akanjira-player a week beforehand. Matches took place at the palace entrance, in an enclosure set aside for games and shows. The wrestlers typically came of their own accord during public festivals, along with magicians, actors and acrobats. Other times they would be hired by nobles to compete. Winners were awarded a substantial cash prize from the king and presented with a victory standard. Possession of this standard brought national distinction.[5]
The scene of action was gay with flags flapping, and the citizenry quickly packed the rows of benches. When the wrestlers climbed into the arena, they strutted around, flexing their muscles, leaping in the air, crying out and clapping their hands. Then they grappled, holding each other tightly around the waist, their necks resting on each other's shoulder, their legs entwined, while each attempted to win a fall or break the hold.
TheManasollasa of theChalukya king Someswara III (1124–1138) is a treatise on kingly fine arts and leisure.[6] AnthropologistJoseph Alter writes of it, "The chapter entitled 'Malla Vinod' describes the classification of wrestlers into types by age, size and strength. It also outlines how the wrestlers were to exercise and what they were to eat. In particular the king was responsible for providing the wrestlers with pulses, meat, milk, sugar as well as 'high-class sweets'. The wrestlers were kept isolated from the women of the court and were expected to devote themselves to building their bodies."[6] TheManasollasa "gives the names of moves and exercises but does not provide descriptions".[6]
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TheMalla Purana[7] is aKula Purana associated with theJyesthimalla, a Brahminjāti of wrestlers fromGujarat, dating most likely to the 13th century. According to Alter, "It categorizes and classifies types of wrestlers, defines necessary physical characteristics, ... describes types of exercises and techniques of wrestling as well as the preparation of the wrestling pit", and provides a fairly precise account of which foods wrestlers should eat in each season of the year.[6]
The scholar-practitionerNorman Sjoman states that theMalla Purana describes 16 types of exercises for wrestling, namelyRangasrama wrestling as such;Stambhasrama pole exercises;Bhamramanikasrama of unknown meaning;Svasaprenaikasrama stamina exercises like running and skipping;Sthapitasrama, "perhaps exercises done erect";[8]Uhapohasrama "said not to be an exercise";[8] the use of heavy and light stone rings fastened to poles;Pramada exercises with clubs;Amardankisrama, that Sjoman suspects is a form of massage;Asthadanaka gymnastic exercises for the lower body;Kundakarsank "callisthenics with circular movements";[8] the unknownAnyakrtkarasrama;Jalasrama, swimming;Sopanarohana, climbing steps; andBhojanordhavabhramanika, which Sjoman assumes was a type of callisthenics.[8] Sjoman notes that theMalla Purana (16–21) names 18hatha yoga postures (asanas) includingSimhasana,Kurmasana,Kukkutasana,Garudasana andSirsasana.[8]
As the influence of Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia, malla-yuddha was adopted in what are nowCambodia,Malaysia,Java, and other neighbouring countries. It became popular not only among commoners but also patronized by royalty. The legendary heroBadang was said to have engaged in such a wrestling match against a visiting champion in Singapore.
Traditional Indian wrestling first began to decline following the collapse of the Gupta Empire duringMedieval India. UnderMughal rule, courtly fashion favoured the Persianatepehlwani style. Traditional malla-yuddha remained popular in the south, however, and was particularly common in theVijayanagara Empire. The 16th-century Jaina classicBharatesa Vaibhava describes wrestlers challenging their opponents with grunts and traditional signs of patting the shoulders.
As part of his daily routine, the kingKrishna Deva Raya would rise early and exercise his muscles with thegada (mace) and sword before wrestling with his favourite opponent. His many wives were tended to by only female servants and guards, and among the 12,000 women in the palace were those who wrestled and others who fought with sword and shield.[9] During theNavaratri festival, wrestlers compete in front of the king, as described by the Portuguese travellerDomingo Paes.
Then the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth, and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give one another fine falls too.[10]
Malla-yuddha is now virtually extinct in thenorthern states, but most of its traditions are perpetuated in modern kusti. The descendants of the Jyesti clan continued to practice their ancestral arts of malla-yuddha andvajra-musti into the 1980s but rarely do so today. Malla-yuddha has survived ceremonially insouth India however, and can still be seen inKarnataka[11] andTamil Nadu today.
Wrestlers train and fight in a traditional arena orakhara. Matches take place in a clay or dirt pit, thirty feet across and either square or circular in shape. The soil of the floor is mixed with various ingredients, includingghee. Before training, the floor is raked of any pebbles or stones. Water is added approximately every three days to keep it at the right consistency; soft enough to avoid injury but hard enough so as not to impede the wrestlers' movements. Wrestlers begin each session by flattening the soil, an act which is considered both a part of endurance training and an exercise in self-discipline. During practice, wrestlers throw a few handfuls of dirt onto their own bodies and that of their opponents as a form of blessing, which also provides for a better grip. Once the arena has been prepared a prayer is offered to the gym's patron deity, most commonlyHanuman. Every training hall has a small makeshift altar for this purpose, where incense is lit and small yellow flower garlands are offered to the god. This is followed by paying respect to theguru by touching the head to his feet, a traditional sign of respect for elders in the Indian subcontinent.
Many wrestlers live at their training hall but this is not always required. Traditionally revered as extensions of Hanuman, all wrestlers are required to abstain from sex, smoking and drinking so the body remains pure and the wrestlers are able to focus on cultivating themselves physically, mentally and spiritually. This purity is also said to help achieve the highest level of martial and sporting perfection. A wrestler's only belongings are a blanket, akowpeenam (loincloth) and some clothes. In this regard, they are often compared to Hindu-Buddhist holy men.[1]
Boys typically start training at the age of ten to twelve. To avoid stunting their growth, young trainees are first taughtkundakavartana, callisthenics and exercises to develop their overall strength and endurance without equipment. Exercises that employ the wrestler's own bodyweight include the sun salutation (Surya Namaskara),shirshasana,Hindu squat (bethak) and theHindu push-up (danda), which are also found inhatha yoga. After acquiring the necessary power and stamina, students may beginkhambhasrama, referring to exercises that use themallakhamba or wrestler's pillar. There are a number of pillars, although the most common is a free-standing upright pole, some eight to ten inches in diameter, planted into the ground. Wrestlers mount, dismount and utilize this pole for various complex callisthenics designed to develop their grip, stamina, and strength in the arms, legs and upper-body. In a later variation, the pole was replaced with a hanging rope. Rope mallakhamba is today most commonly practiced by children as a spectator sport in itself rather than its traditional role as a form of training for wrestling.
Other training concepts include the following.
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