This article is about the language on which standard Indonesian and standard Malay are based. For the standard Malay used in Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore also called "Malay", seeMalaysian Malay. For the vernacular varieties and dialects of Malay, seeMalayic languages.
The language ispluricentric and amacrolanguage, i.e., a group ofmutually intelligible speech varieties, ordialect continuum, that have no traditional name in common, and which may be considered distinct languages by their speakers. Several varieties of it are standardized as the national language (bahasa kebangsaan orbahasa nasional) of several nation states with various official names: in Malaysia, it is designated as eitherBahasa Melayu ("Malay language") or in some instances,Bahasa Malaysia ("Malaysian language");[14] in Singapore and Brunei, it is calledBahasa Melayu ("Malay language") where it in the latter country refers to a formal standard variety set apart from its ownvernacular dialect;[a][15] in Indonesia, an autonomous normative variety calledBahasa Indonesia ("Indonesian language") is designated thebahasa persatuan/pemersatu ("unifying language" orlingua franca) whereas the term "Malay" (bahasa Melayu) refers to vernacular varieties of Malayindigenous to areas of Central to SouthernSumatra andWest Kalimantan as the ethnic languages ofMalay in Indonesia.[14][b]
Classical Malay, also called Court Malay, was the literary standard of the pre-colonialMalacca andJohor Sultanates and so the language is sometimes called Malacca, Johor or Riau Malay (or various combinations of those names) to distinguish it from the various otherMalayic languages. According toEthnologue 16, several of the Malayic varieties they currently list as separate languages, including theOrang Asli varieties of theMalay Peninsula, are so closely related tostandard Malay that they may prove to be dialects. There are also severalMalay trade and creole languages (e.g.Ambonese Malay) based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay as well asMakassar Malay, which appears to be amixed language.
The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods: Old Malay, the Transitional Period, Classical Malay, Late Modern Malay and Modern Malay. Old Malay is believed to be the actual ancestor of Classical Malay.[20]
Old Malay was influenced bySanskrit, the ancientIndo-Aryan language ofIndia. Sanskrit loan words can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. The earliest known stone inscription in the Old Malay language was found on the island ofSumatra. Written in thePallava variety of theGrantha alphabet,[21] it is dated 1 May 683. Known as theKedukan Bukit inscription, it was discovered by theDutchman C. J. Batenburg on 29 November 1920 at Kedukan Bukit, on the banks of the Tatang River, a tributary of theMusi River, nearPalembang, in what is nowSouth Sumatra,Indonesia. The stone measures approximately 45 by 80 centimetres (18 by 31 in). For centuries,Srivijaya, a maritime empire based on the island from the 7th to the 11th centuries, was responsible for the spread of Old Malay throughout theMalay Peninsula and theMalay Archipelago through its expansion and economic power. Old Malay served as thelingua franca of traders and was widely used in various ports and marketplaces across the region.[22]
The Tanjung Tanah Law[23] was a 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text that was produced during the reign ofAdityawarman (1345–1377) of theMelayu Kingdom (also known as Malayu or Dharmasraya Kingdom), a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end ofSrivijayan rule inSumatra. The laws were for theMinangkabau people, who today still live in the highlands of Sumatra,Indonesia.
TheTerengganu Inscription Stone (Malay:Batu Bersurat Terengganu; Jawi:باتو برسورت ترڠݢانو) is a granite stele bearing an inscription inJawi script, discovered inTerengganu, on the east coast of theMalay Peninsula (in what is nowMalaysia). It is considered the earliest evidence of Classical Malay. Dated approximately to 702AH (1303CE), it represents the oldest known evidence of Jawi writing in theMalay world and stands as one of the earliest testimonies to the advent ofIslam as astate religion in the region. The inscription contains a proclamation issued by a ruler of Terengganu, referred to asSeri Paduka Tuan, urging his subjects to uphold and propagate Islam, while outlining 10 basicSharia laws as guidance.
Classical Malay came into widespread use as thelingua franca of the region during theMalacca Sultanate era (1402–1511), a powerful maritime kingdom strategically located along theStrait of Malacca that became a hub of international trade and Islamic learning in the region. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence ofIslamic literature, which brought about significant linguistic changes, including a massive infusion ofArabic vocabulary, as well as continued influence fromSanskrit andTamil. This enriched form of the language came to be known as Classical Malay. It was during this time the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay.[citation needed]
After theCapture of Malacca by thePortuguese in 1511, marking the fall of theMalacca Sultanate, theroyal court re-established itself as theJohor Sultanate. The court continued to use Classical Malay as its literary and administrative language. Over time, this literary tradition became strongly associated with the territories under the sultanate, including the present-dayMalaysian state ofJohor and theIndonesian province ofRiau Islands. As a result, many assumed that the spoken Malay of Johor and Riau was closely related to Classical Malay. However, while theliterary language used in the region reflects the classical tradition, the local spoken dialects differ.[24] The fall of Malacca led to the dispersal of Malay literary centres, as many literati and scholars sought refuge in areas outside the immediate control of European colonial powers. As a result, new Malay literary works began to emerge fromAceh,Java,Makassar, theMoluccas,Champa, and other regions.[25]
Among the oldest surviving letters written in Malay are the letters from Sultan Abu Hayat ofTernate, in theMaluku Islands of present-dayIndonesia, dated around 1521–1522. The text is addressed to the king ofPortugal, following contact with Portuguese explorerFrancisco Serrão.[26] The letters show a sign of non-native usage, as the Ternateans used (and still use) the unrelatedTernate language, aWest Papuan language, as theirfirst language. Malay was used solely as alingua franca for inter-ethnic communications.[26]
The 19th century marked a period of strongWestern political and commercial domination in theMalay Peninsula and theMalay Archipelago. The colonial demarcation brought by the1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty led toDutch East India Company effectively colonising theEast Indies in the south, while theBritish Empire held several colonies and protectorates in theMalay peninsula andBorneo in the north. Both colonial powers used the Malay language as a tool of centralisation and modernisation. They made use of each other's scholarly publications in developing the standardised versions of the Malay language.[25] The flourishing of pre-modern Malay literature in the 19th century led to the rise of intellectual movements among the locals and the emergence of new communities of Malaylinguists.
Malay is a member of theAustronesian family of languages, which includes languages fromSoutheast Asia and thePacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continentalAsia.Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken inMadagascar in theIndian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor,Proto-Austronesian language. There are manycognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.
Within Austronesian, Malay is part of a cluster of numerous closely relatedforms of speech known as theMalayic languages, which were spread across Malaya and the Indonesian archipelago by Malay traders from Sumatra. There is disagreement as to which varieties of speech popularly called "Malay" should be considered dialects of this language, and which should be classified as distinct Malay languages. Thevernacular of Brunei—Brunei Malay—for example, is not readily intelligible with thestandard language, and the same is true with some lects on the Malay Peninsula such asKedah Malay. However, both Brunei and Kedah are quite close.[27]
TheRencong alphabet, a native writing system found in central andSouth Sumatra. The text reads (Voorhoeve's spelling): "haku manangis ma / njaru ka'u ka'u di / saru tijada da / tang [hitu hadik sa]", which is translated by Voorhoeve as: "I am weeping, calling you; though called, you do not come" (hitu adik sa- is the rest of 4th line.Kedukan Bukit Inscription, usingPallava alphabet, is the oldest surviving specimen of theOld Malay language inSouth Sumatra, Indonesia.
Malay is now written using theLatin script, known asRumi in Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore orLatin in Indonesia, although anArabic script calledArab Melayu orJawi also exists. Latin script is official in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Malay usesHindu-Arabic numerals.
Final pages of the Taj al-Salatin,The Crown of Kings, a Malay "mirror for princes", copied by Muhammad bin Umar Syaikh Farid on 31 July 1824 CE inPenang in Jawi script.British Library
Rumi (Latin) andJawi are co-official inBrunei only. Names of institutions and organisations have to use Jawi and Rumi (Latin) scripts. Jawi is used fully in schools, especially the religious school,sekolah agama, which is compulsory during the afternoon for Muslim students aged from around 6–7 up to 12–14.
Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi in Malaysia, and students taking Malay language examinations in Malaysia have the option of answering questions using Jawi.
The Latin script, however, is the most commonly used in Brunei and Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes.
Historically, Malay has been written using various scripts. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using thePallava,Kawi andRencong scripts; these scripts are no longer frequently used, but similar scripts such as theCham alphabet are used by theChams ofVietnam andCambodia. Old Malay was written using Pallava and Kawi script, as evident from several inscription stones in the Malay region. Starting from the era of kingdom of Pasai and throughout the golden age of the Malacca Sultanate,Jawi gradually replaced these scripts as the most commonly used script in the Malay region. Starting from the 17th century, underDutch and British influence, Jawi was gradually replaced by theRumi script.[28]
A Malay traffic sign in MalaysiaIndonesian road signs inSoekarno–Hatta International Airport. The blue sign reads "Lajur Khusus Menurunkan Penumpang" which means "Lane for dropping passengers only" and the small no-parking sign on the left reads "Sampai Rambu Berikutnya" which means "until next sign" in Indonesian.
Malay is spoken inBrunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Timor-Leste,Singapore and southernThailand.[29]Indonesian is the national language in Indonesia by Article 36 of the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, while "Malay" (bahasa Melayu) has been recognised as the ethnic languages ofMalay in Indonesia alongsideMalay-based trade and creole languages andother ethnic languages. Malaysia and Singapore use a common standard Malay.[30] Brunei, in addition to Standard Malay, uses a distinctvernacular dialect calledBrunei Malay. In Timor-Leste, Indonesian is recognised by the constitution as one of two working languages (the other beingEnglish), alongside the official languages ofTetum andPortuguese.[8] The extent to which Malay is used in these countries varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia byArticle 152 of theConstitution of Malaysia, and became the sole official language inPeninsular Malaysia in 1968 and inEast Malaysia gradually from 1974.English continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that in Malaysia. In thePhilippines,Indonesian is spoken by the overseas Indonesian community concentrated inDavao City. Functional phrases are taught to members of theArmed Forces of the Philippines as well as local students.
Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian) exercises in the development of Malay as an international language as well as a language of science.[31] TheVOA andBBC use Indonesian as one of their standard language for broadcasting.[32][33] InAustralia, Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together withJapanese andMandarin, taught in some schools as part of theLanguages Other Than English programme.[34] Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s.[35] Indonesian has been recognised as an official language of the General Conference of UNESCO since 2013.[7]
The consonants of Malaysian[36][37][38] and also Indonesian[39] are shown below. Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic, Dutch and English, are shown in brackets.
Orthographic note:The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:
/ð/ is 'z', the same as the/z/ sound (only occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing the/ð/ sound, but the writing is not distinguished from Arabic loanwords with/z/ sound, and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers).
/θ/ is represented as 's', the same as the/s/ sound (only occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing the/θ/ sound, but the writing is not distinguished from Arabic loanwords with/s/ sound, and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers). Previously (before 1972), this sound was written 'th' in Standard Malay (not Indonesian)
the glottal stop/ʔ/ is final 'k' or an apostrophe ' (although some words have this glottal stop in the middle, such asrakyat)
Phonemes which occur only in Arabic loans may be pronounced distinctly by speakers who know Arabic. Otherwise they tend to be replaced with native sounds.
Malay originally had four vowels, but in many dialects today, including Standard Malay, it has six, with/i/ split into/i,e/ and/u/ split into/u,o/.[36] Many words are commonly pronounced variably, with either[i,u] or[e,o], and relatively few words require a mid vowel[e,o].
Orthographic note: both/e/ and/ə/ are written with⟨e⟩. Orthographic/e,o/ are relatively rare, so the letter⟨e⟩ usually represents/ə/. There are some homographs; for example,perang is used for both/pəraŋ/ "war" and/peraŋ~piraŋ/ "blond". (In Indonesia, "blond" is written aspirang instead ofperang.)
Some analyses regard/ai,au,oi/ as diphthongs.[40][41] However,[ai] and[au] can only occur in open syllables, such ascukai ("excise") andpulau ("island"). Words with a phonetic diphthong in a closed syllable, such asbaik ("good") andlaut ("sea"), are actually two syllables. An alternative analysis therefore treats the phonetic diphthongs[ai],[au] and[oi] as a sequence of a monophthong plus an approximant:/aj/,/aw/ and/oj/ respectively.[42]
There is a rule ofvowel harmony: the non-open vowels/i,e,u,o/ in bisyllabic words must agree in height, sohidung ("nose") is allowed but *hedung is not.[43]
Comparison of several standard pronunciations of Malay–Indonesian[44]
Example
Standard Pronunciation
Indonesian–Baku
Johor–Riau (Piawai)
Northern Peninsular
⟨a⟩ in final open syllable
⟨kereta⟩
/a/
/ə/
/a/
⟨i⟩ in final closed syllable with final ⟨n⟩ and ⟨ng⟩
⟨kambing⟩
/i/
/e/
/i/
⟨i⟩ in final closed syllable with other final consonants
⟨itik⟩
/i/
/e/
/e/
⟨u⟩ in final closed syllable with final ⟨n⟩ and ⟨ng⟩
⟨tahun⟩
/u/
/o/
/u/
⟨u⟩ in final closed syllable with other final consonants
⟨lumpur⟩
/u/
/o/
/o/
final ⟨r⟩
⟨lumpur⟩
/r/
silent
/r/
Study by Uri Tadmor which was published in 2003 shows that mutation of ⟨a⟩ in final open syllable is an areal feature. Specifically, it is an areal feature of Western Austronesia. Uri Tadmor classify those types into four groups as below.[45]
Final /a/ mutation in Malay-Indonesian dialects and nearby Austronesian languages
Malay does not make use ofgrammatical gender, and there are only a few words that use natural gender; the same word is used for 'he' and 'she' which isdia or for 'his' and 'her' which isdia punya. There is no grammatical plural in Malay either; thusorang may mean either 'person' or 'people'. Verbs are notinflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as 'yesterday') or by other tense indicators, such assudah 'already' andbelum 'not yet'. On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denotevoice or intentional and accidentalmoods.
Malay does not have agrammatical subject in the sense that English does. In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both anagent and anobject, these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive", is the basic and most common word order.[citation needed]
This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(July 2019)
The Malay language has many words borrowed fromArabic (in particular religious terms),Sanskrit,Tamil, certainSinitic languages,Persian (due to historical status of Malay Archipelago as a trading hub), and more recently,Portuguese,Dutch andEnglish (in particular many scientific and technological terms).Indonesian has inclination towardSanskrit in formulation of new words due to extensiveJavanese andBalinese speaking community, while Malaysian and Bruneian Malay preferArabic as source for neologism due to acceptance of Islamic Arabic practices.[46] Arabic in Indonesian tends to reside in (Islamic) religious sphere.[46] The presence of Sanskritised neologism in Malaysian and Bruneian Malay is a result of "importation" from Indonesian.[46] Terminology for various subjects such as administration, business, and law was derived from the languages of respective colonial master, those are Dutch for Indonesian and English for Malaysian and Bruneian Malay.[46] Although the rule for scientific terms development is agreed, the result can be differ because of (1) the difference in traditional vocabulary (such as Dutch vs English and Sanskritic Javanese vs Arabised Malay) and (2) the loan-shift difference on semantics and grammatical feature choice.[46] The divergence between Indonesian and "Standard" Malay are systemic in nature and, to a certain extent, contribute to the way the two sets of speakers understand and react to the world, and are more far reaching with a discernible cognitive gap than the difference between dialects.[46]
There is a group of closely related languages spoken byMalays and related peoples acrossBrunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Southern Thailand,Timor-Leste, and the far southern parts of thePhilippines. They have traditionally been classified as Malay, Para-Malay, and Aboriginal Malay, but this reflects geography and ethnicity rather than a proper linguistic classification. The Malayic languages aremutually intelligible to varying extents, though the distinction between language and dialect is unclear in many cases.
The extent to which Malay and related Malayan languages are used in the countries where it is spoken varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia byArticle 152 of theConstitution of Malaysia, and became the sole official language inWest Malaysia in 1968, and inEast Malaysia gradually from 1974.English continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that of Malaysia.
In Singapore, Malay was historically thelingua franca among people of different nationalities. Although this has largely given way to English, Malay still retains the status of national language and thenational anthem,Majulah Singapura, is entirely in Malay. In addition, parade commands in the military, police and civil defence are given only in Malay.
Most residents of the five southernmost provinces ofThailand—a region that, for the most part, used to be part of an ancient Malay kingdom calledPattani—speak a dialect of Malay calledYawi (not to be confused with Jawi), which is similar to Kelantanese Malay, but the language has no official status or recognition.
Owing to earlier contact with thePhilippines, Malay words—such asdalam hati (sympathy),luwalhati (glory),tengah hari (midday),sedap (delicious)—have evolved and been integrated intoTagalog and otherPhilippine languages.
TheYouth Pledge was the result of the Second Youth Congress held inBatavia in October 1928. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as aunifying language throughout the archipelago.Indonesian speaker
By contrast, Indonesian has successfully become thelingua franca for its disparate islands and ethnic groups, in part because the colonial language, Dutch, is no longer commonly spoken. (InEast Timor, which was governed as a province of Indonesia from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian is widely spoken and recognized under itsConstitution as a 'working language'.)
BesidesIndonesian, which developed from the Riau Malay dialect,[48] there are many Malay varieties spoken in Indonesia; they are divided into western and eastern groups. Western Malay dialects are predominantly spoken inSumatra andBorneo, which itself is divided into Bornean and Sumatran Malay; some of the most widely spoken Sumatran Malay dialects areRiau Malay,Langkat,Palembang Malay andJambi Malay.Minangkabau,Kerinci andBengkulu are believed to be Sumatran Malay descendants. Meanwhile, theJakarta dialect (known asBetawi) also belongs to the western Malay group.
The differences among both groups are quite observable. For example, the wordkita means 'we, us' in western, but means 'I, me' in Manado, whereas 'we, us" in Manado istorang and Ambonkatong (originally abbreviated from Malaykita orang 'we people'). Another difference is the lack of possessive pronouns (and suffixes) in eastern dialects. Manado uses the verbpe and Ambonpu (from Malaypunya 'to have') to mark possession. So 'my name' and 'our house" are translated in western Malay asnamaku andrumah kita butkita pe nama andtorang pe rumah in Manado andbeta pu nama,katong pu rumah in Ambon dialect.
The pronunciation may vary in western dialects, especially the pronunciation of words ending in the vowel 'a'. For example, in some parts of Malaysia and in Singapore,kita (inclusive 'we, us, our') is pronounced as/kitə/, in Kelantan and Southern Thailand as/kitɔ/, in Riau as/kita/, in Palembang as/kito/, in Betawi and Perak as/kitɛ/ and in Kedah and Perlis as /kitɑ/.
Batavian and eastern dialects are sometimes regarded as Malay creole, because the speakers are not ethnically Malay.
Despite that statement of "all Malay speakers should be able to understand either of the translations below, which differ mostly in their choice of wording," the divergence between Indonesian and "Standard" Malay are systemic in nature and, to a certain extent, contribute to the way the two sets of speakers understand and react to the world, and are more far reaching with a discernible cognitive gap than the difference between dialects.[46] The words for 'article',pasal andperkara, and for 'declaration',pernyataan andperisytiharan, are specific to the Indonesian and Malaysian standards, respectively, but otherwise all the words are found in both (and even those words may be found with slightly different meanings).
Pernyataan Umum tentang Hak Asasi Manusia (General Declaration about Human Rights)
Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat (Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Article 1
Pasal 1
Perkara 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.
Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan sama rata dari segi maruah dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.
(All human beings are born free and have the same dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should get along with each other in a spirit of brotherhood.)
(All human beings are born free and are equal in dignity and rights. They have thoughts and feelings and should get along with a spirit of brotherhood.)
^Since the standardized varieties of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore are structurally largely identical and mostly differ in lexicon and to a lesser degree in phonetic details, the umbrella terms "Malay/Indonesian"[16] or "Malay-Indonesian"[17] are often used in the linguistic literature when discussing the structure or history of the language.
^Uli, Kozok (10 March 2012)."How many people speak Indonesian". University of Hawaii at Manoa. Retrieved20 October 2012.James T. Collins (Bahasa Sanskerta dan Bahasa Melayu, Jakarta: KPG 2009) gives a conservative estimate of approximately 200 million, and a maximum estimate of 250 million speakers of Malay (Collins 2009, p. 17).
^Dahlan, H. Abdullah Zaini. Kitabati, Practical Methods for Learning to Read & Write Pegon (Kitabati, Metode Praktis Belajar Membaca & Menulis Pegon). Zaini Press. Accessed April 19, 2023.https://ia903106.us.archive.org/22/items/etaoin/Kitabati.pdf.
^Lowenberg, Peter (1988). "Malay in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore: Three Faces of a National Language". InCoulmas, Florian (ed.).With Forked Tongues: What are National Languages Good For?. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma. p. 146–79.ISBN978-0-89720-084-4.
^10 million in Malaysia as either "Malay" or "Malaysian", 5 million in Indonesia as "Malay" plus 260 million as "Indonesian", etc.
^abAsmah Haji Omar (1992). "Malay as a pluricentric language". InClyne, Michael J. (ed.).Malay as a pluricentric language Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyte. pp. 403–4.ISBN3-11-012855-1.
Clynes, Adrian (2001). "Brunei Malay: An Overview".Occasional Papers in Language Studies.7. Department of English Language and Applied Linguistics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam:11–2.
^Ethnologue 16 classifies them as distinct languages, ISO3kxd andmeo, but states that they "are so closely related that they may one day be included as dialects of Malay".
B., C. O. (1939). "Corrigenda and Addenda: A Chinese Vocabulary of Malacca Malay Words and Phrases Collected between A.D. 1403 and 1511 (?)".Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London.10 (1).JSTOR607921.
Edwards, E. D.; Blagden, C. O. (1931). "A Chinese Vocabulary of Malacca Malay Words and Phrases Collected between A. D. 1403 and 1511 (?)".Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London.6 (3):715–749.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00093204.JSTOR607205.S2CID129174700.
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