| Malabar District | |
|---|---|
| District ofMadras Presidency | |
| 1792–1956 | |
 Malabar District with revenue divisions and taluks | |
| Capital | Kozhikode |
| Area | |
• 1951 | 15,027[1] km2 (5,802 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• 1951 | 4,758,842[1] |
| Government | |
| District collector | |
| History | |
• Territories ceded byTipu Sultan attached toBombay Presidency | 1792 |
• Divided intoNorth Malabar andSouth Malabar | 1793 |
• Attached toMadras Presidency | 1800 |
• Reorganisation ofTaluks | 1860 |
| 1877 | |
• Became part ofMadras State | 1950 |
| 1956 | |
| 1956 | |
Malabar District, also known asBritish Malabar or simplyMalabar[1][2] was an administrative district on the southwesternMalabar Coast ofBombay Presidency (1792–1800),[3]Madras Presidency (1800–1950) and finally,Madras State (1950–1956) in India. It was the most populous and the third-largest district in the erstwhileMadras State.[4] The historic town ofKozhikode was the administrative headquarters of this district.[1]
The district included the present-day districts ofKannur,Kozhikode,Wayanad,Malappuram,Palakkad (excludingChittur taluk),Chavakad Taluk and parts ofKodungallur Taluk ofThrissur district (former part ofPonnani Taluk), andFort Kochi area ofErnakulam district in the northern and central parts of presentKerala state, theLakshadweep Islands, and a major portion of theNilgiris district in modern-dayTamil Nadu. The detached settlements ofTangasseri andAnchuthengu, which were British colonies within the kingdom ofTravancore in southern Kerala, also formed part of Malabar District until 1927.[5]
Malayalam was the administrative as well as the most spokenlingua franca of Malabar district.Jeseri, a distinct dialect of Malayalam, was spoken in theLaccadive Islands. Malabar District merged with the erstwhile state ofTravancore-Cochin (1950–1956) to formKerala according to theStates Reorganisation Act, 1956.[6] On the same day, the presentKasaragod district ofSouth Canara District was also attached to Malabar, and theLaccadive andMinicoy Islands of Malabar were reorganised to form a new Union Territory.[6] Malabar was trifurcated to form the districts ofKannur,[7]Kozhikode,[8] andPalakkad,[9] on 1 January 1957.
The city ofKozhikode was the capital of Malabar. Malabar was divided intoNorth Malabar andSouth Malabar in 1793 for administrative convenience, with their regional headquarters atThalassery andCherpulassery (Later changed toOttapalam) respectively. During theBritish rule, Malabar's chief importance lay in its production ofMalabar pepper,coconut, andtiles.[10] In the old administrative records of theMadras Presidency, it is recorded that the most remarkable plantation owned by Government in the erstwhile Madras Presidency was the Teak plantation atNilambur planted in 1844.[11] The District of Malabar and the ports atBeypore andFort Kochi had some sort of importance in the erstwhileMadras Presidency as it was one of the two districts of the Presidency that lies on the WesternMalabar Coast, thus accessing the marine route throughArabian Sea. The first railway line of Kerala fromTirur toBeypore in 1861 was laid for it. The workMalabar Manual (1887) authored byWilliam Logan in two volumes explains the characteristics of Malabar.
The district lay between theArabian Sea on the west,South Canara District on the north, theWestern Ghats (the princely states ofCoorg andMysore, andNilgiris andCoimbatore districts) to the east, and theprincely state ofCochin to the south. The district covered an area of 15,027 square kilometres (5,802 sq mi), and extended 233 km (145 mi) along the coast and 40–120 kilometers (25–75 miles) inland. The name Mala-bar means the "hillside slopes".[citation needed]
All the major pre-independence political parties of Kerala such as theINC andCPI started their functioning inKerala at Malabar District as a part of the freedom struggle.KPCC was formed in 1921 atOttapalam, on the bank of riverBharathappuzha.[12] In July 1937, a clandestine meeting of theCSP, which was the political party formed by socialists of Congress, was held atCalicut.[13] The CPI inKerala was formed on 31 December 1939 with thePinarayi Conference, held nearThalassery.[14] It was the erstwhile leaders of Congress Socialist Party, such asP. Krishna Pillai,K. Damodaran,E. M. S. Namboodiripad, who formed the CPI branch in Kerala. TheIndian Union Muslim League was also formed in the 1930s, on a meeting held atThalassery.
Until the arrival of British, the termMalabar was used in foreign trade circles as a general name forKerala.[15] Earlier, the termMalabar had also been used to denoteTulu Nadu andKanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala in the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.[16][17] The people of Malabar were known asMalabars. Still the termMalabar is often used to denote the entire southwestern coast of India. From the time ofCosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, theArab sailors used to call Kerala asMale. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in theTopography written byCosmas Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium calledMale, which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The nameMale is thought to come from theDravidian wordMala ('hill').[18][19]Al-Biruni (AD 973 – 1048) must have been the first writer to call this stateMalabar.[15] Authors such asIbn Khordadbeh andAl-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[20] The Arab writers had called this placeMalibar,Manibar,Mulibar, andMunibar.Malabar is reminiscent of the wordMalanad which meansthe land of hills. According toWilliam Logan, the wordMalabar comes from a combination of theDravidian wordMala (hill) and thePersian/Arabic wordBarr (country/continent).[21]
The ancient maritime port ofTyndis, which was then a centre of trade withAncient Rome, is roughly identified withPonnani,Tanur, andKadalundi-Vallikkunnu. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and theRoman Empire.[23] The RiverBharathappuzha (River Ponnani) had importance sinceSangam period (1st–4th century CE), due to the presence ofPalakkad Gap which connected theMalabar coast withCoromandel coast through inland.[24]
Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port ofTyndis was located at the northwestern border ofKeprobotos (Chera dynasty).[25] TheNorth Malabar region, which lies north of the port atTyndis, was ruled by the kingdom ofEzhimala duringSangam period.[26] According to thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known asLimyrike began atNaura andTyndis. However thePtolemy mentions onlyTyndis as theLimyrike's starting point. The region probably ended atKanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-dayMalabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000sesterces.[27]Pliny the Elder mentioned thatLimyrike was prone by pirates.[28] TheCosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that theLimyrike was a source of peppers.[29][30]
Three inscriptions those date back to 932 CE, those were found fromTriprangode (nearTirunavaya),Kottakkal, andChaliyar, mention the name ofGoda Ravi ofChera dynasty.[31] TheTriprangode inscription states about the agreement ofThavanur.[31] Several inscriptions written inOld Malayalam those date back to the 10th century CE, have found fromSukapuram nearEdappal, which was one of the 64 oldNambudiri villages of Kerala. Descriptions about the rulers ofEranad andValluvanad regions can be seen in theJewish copper plates of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (around 1000 CE) andViraraghava copper plates of Veera Raghava Chakravarthy (around 1225 CE).[32] Eranad was ruled by aSamanthan Nair clan known asEradis, similar to theVellodis of neighbouringValluvanad andNedungadis ofNedunganad. The rulers of Valluvanad were known by the titleEralppad/Eradi. It was the ruler ofEranad who later became theZamorin ofCalicut by annexing the port town ofCalicut fromPolanad, which was vassal toKolathunadu. The ruler ofKingdom of Cochin also traces back toPonnani inSouth Malabar. South Malabar was also the seat of the kingdoms ofParappanad,Vettathunadu,Valluvanadu,Nedungadis, andPalakkad. Parappanad royal family is a cousin dynasty of theTravancore royal family. TheAzhvanchery Thamprakkal were the feudal lords ofAthavanad.Tirunavaya, the seat ofMamankam festival, lies on the bank of the riverBharathappuzha.
In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered larger parts of central Kerala after the seize ofTirunavaya region fromValluvanad, which were under the control of the king ofPerumbadappu Swaroopam (Cochin). The ruler ofPerumpadappu was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south fromKodungallur toKochi. In the 15th century, the status of Cochin was reduced to a vassal state of Kozhikode, thus leading to the emergence of Kozhikode as the most powerful kingdom in medievalMalabar Coast.[3]
During the 15th centuryKalaripayattu was important in the history of Malabar, where some warriors lived, most notablyputhooram veettilAromal Chekavar and his sisterUnniyarcha, chieftains of martial arts.[33][34][35]Kozhikode was the largest city in the Indian state of Kerala under the rule ofZamorin of Calicut, an independent kingdom based at Kozhikode. It remained so until the 18th century CE. The port at Kozhikode was the gateway toSouth Indian coast for theArabs, thePortuguese, theDutch, and finally theBritish.[36] TheKunjali Marakkars, who were the naval chief of theZamorin ofKozhikode, are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.[37] UnderBritish Raj, Kozhikode became the headquarters of Malabar District, one of the two districts in the western coast of erstwhileMadras Presidency. The port atKozhikode held the superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, whileKannur,Kollam, andKochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather.[38] The Portuguese arrived atKappadKozhikode in 1498 during theAge of Discovery, thus opening a direct sea route from Europe to South Asia.[39]Kallingal Madathil Rarichan Moopan and Pullambil Moopan and Vamala Moopan families were very prominent among those who said that two centuries ago, someJenmis in Kozhikode were engaged in sea trade and shipping.[40][41]
At the peak of their reign, theZamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north.[42][43] They were the most powerful rulers onMalabar Coast andKozhikode was the largest city of Kerala until the Portuguese era. TheZamorin of Calicut, who was originally the ruler ofEranad based atNediyiruppu, developed the port atKozhikode and changed his headquarters to there for maritime trade.Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city ofKozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".[44]Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)[45] states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession.Abdur Razzak (1442–43),Niccolò de' Conti (1445),Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74),Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), andDuarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in theIndian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.[46][47]
TheKingdom of Cochin used to adopt members fromKingdom of Tanur in the medieval period.[3] Being home to the prominent figures likeThunchaththu Ezhuthachan,Poonthanam Nambudiri,Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri,Kunchan Nambiar, andZainuddin Makhdoom II, South Malabar was the cultural capital of medieval Kerala. TheKerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, includingseries expansion for trigonometric functions.[48][49] The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics was based atVettathunadu (Tirur region) of South Malabar.[48]
Kozhikode,Tanur, andPonnani were the three major port cities in South Malabar region, while the minor trading ports includedBeypore,Parappanangadi, andChaliyam.[43] The coastalKingdom of Tanur, theKingdom of Valluvanad in inland, andPalakkad in the hilly region formed other major kingdoms inSouth Malabar region in the medieval period.[43]Marthanda Varma, the founder ofTravancore, belongs toParappanad royal family. In 1664, the municipality ofFort Kochi was established byDutch Malabar, making it the first municipality inIndian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[50]
North Malabar was the seat of powerful kingdom based atEzhimala in theSangam period (1st–5th century CE). The ancient port ofNaura, which is mentioned in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea as a port somewhere north ofMuziris is identified withKannur.[51] The kingdom ofEzhimala had jurisdiction over twoNadus - The coastalPoozhinadu and the hilly easternKarkanadu. According to the works ofSangam literature,Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt betweenMangalore andKozhikode.[52]Karkanadu consisted ofWayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts ofKodagu (Coorg).[53] It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler ofEzhimala dynasty, took refuge atWayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost toCheras, just before his execution in a battle, according to theSangam works.[53]
Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded byMushika dynasty in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration ofTuluva Brahmins fromTulu Nadu. The Indian anthropologistAyinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of theBunt community ofTulu Nadu was calledKola Bari and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.[54] The Kolathunadu (Kannur) Kingdom at the peak of its power, reportedly extended fromNetravati River (Mangalore) in the north toKorapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south withArabian Sea on the west andKodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands ofLakshadweep in theArabian Sea.[55]
AnOld Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler ofAlupa dynasty ofMangalore, can be found atEzhimala (the former headquarters ofMushika dynasty) nearCannanore, Kerala.[56] TheArabic inscription on a copper slab within theMadayi Mosque inKannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[57] In his book on travels (Il Milione),Marco Polo recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors includedFaxian, the Buddhist pilgrim andIbn Batuta, writer and historian ofTangiers.
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Until the 16th century CE, theKasargod town was known by the nameKanhirakode (may be by the meaning, 'The land ofKanhira Trees') inMalayalam.[58] TheKumbla dynasty, who swayed over the land of southernTulu Nadu wedged betweenChandragiri River andNetravati River (including present-day Taluks ofManjeshwar andKasaragod) fromMaipady Palace atKumbla, had also been vassals to theKolathunadu, before theCarnatic conquests ofVijayanagara Empire.[59] The Kumbla dynasty had a mixed lineage ofMalayaliNairs andTuluva Brahmins.[3] They also claimed their origin fromCheraman Perumals of Kerala.[3]Francis Buchanan-Hamilton states that the customs of Kumbla dynasty were similar to those of the contemporaryMalayali kings, though Kumbla was considered as the southernmost region ofTulu Nadu.[3] Just like other contemporary kings of Kerala in the medieval period, The powerful Kolathu Raja also came under the influence ofZamorin later. TheKolathunadu in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e.,Kadathanadu (Vadakara),Randathara or Poyanad (Dharmadom),Kottayam (Thalassery),Nileshwaram, Iruvazhinadu (Panoor,Kurumbranad etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.[2] TheNileshwaram dynasty on the northernmost part ofKolathiri dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as theZamorin ofCalicut, in the early medieval period.[60]
Kannur was an important trading centre in the 12th century, with active business connections withPersia andArabia. It served as theBritish military headquarters on India's west coast until 1887.Kannur Cantonment is the only cantonment board in Kerala. Kannur was the capital city ofKolathunadu, one of the four powerful kingdoms who ruledKerala during the medieval period.Arakkal Kingdom andChirakkal kingdom were two vassal kingdoms based in the city of Kannur. The port atKozhikode held the superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, whileKannur,Kollam, andKochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather.[38]St. Angelo Fort was built in 1505 by DomFrancisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese Viceroy of India. The Dutch captured the fort from the Portuguese in 1663. They modernized the fort and built the bastions Hollandia, Zeelandia, and Frieslandia that are the major features of the present structure. The original Portuguese fort was pulled down later. A painting of this fort and the fishing ferry behind it can be seen in theRijksmuseum Amsterdam. The Dutch sold the fort to the kingAli Raja ofArakkal in 1772. The Britishconquered it in 1790 and used it as one of their major military stations on theMalabar Coast. During the 17th century, Kannur was the capital city of the onlyMuslim Sultanate in the Malabar region –Arakkal.[61] TheAli Rajas ofArakkal kingdom, nearKannur, who were the vassals of theKolathiri, ruled over theLakshadweep islands.[62]
In 1761, the British capturedMahé, and the settlement was handed over to the ruler ofKadathanadu.[63] The British restoredMahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[63] In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss ofMahé.[63] In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, andMahé was handed over to the French in 1785.[63]
In conjunction with her sister city,Thalassery, it was the third-largest city on the western coast ofBritish India in the 18th century afterBombay andKarachi.Vatakara andKoyilandy were two major coastal towns in North Malabar region besides Kannur and Thalassery.[1]
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The maritimespice trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean stayed with the Arabs during theHigh andLate Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the EuropeanAge of Discovery. AfterVasco Da Gama's arrival inKappadKozhikode in 1498, thePortuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.[64][65][66] TheZamorin of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of afactory and a fort. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them.
The ruler of theKingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to theZamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord atKozhikode.[3] As a result, theKingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler ofTanur also sided withCochin.[3] Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th members were selected fromVettom.[3] However, theTanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in theBattle of Cochin (1504).[2] However, the allegiance of theMappila merchants inTanur region still stayed under theZamorin of Calicut.[58]
The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. WhenFrancisco de Almeida was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established atFort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.[67] Fort St Angelo orSt. Angelo Fort was built atKannur in 1505 andFort St Thomas was built atKollam(Quilon) in 1518 by the Portuguese.[68] However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in Malabar region; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known asKunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.[37] An insurrection at thePort of Quilon between theArabs and thePortuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era inQuilon. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in thebattle at Chaliyam Fort.[69] The Portuguese were ousted by theDutch East India Company, who during the conflicts between theKozhikode and theKochi, gained control of the trade.[70]
In 1757, to check the invasion of theZamorin of Calicut, thePalakkad Raja sought the help of Hyder Ali of Mysore. In 1766,Haider Ali ofMysore defeated the Samoothiri of Kozhikode – anEast India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode to his state.[43][71] After theThird Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the company. Eventually, the status of the Samoothiri was reduced to that of a pensioner of the company (1806).[43][72] WhenWayanad was underHyder Ali's rule, the ghat road fromVythiri toThamarassery was constructed.[73] Then the British rulers developed this route to Carter road.[74] His son and successor,Tipu Sultan,launched campaigns against the expandingBritish East India Company, resulting in two of the fourAnglo-Mysore Wars.[75][76]
Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar district andSouth Kanara to the company in the 1790s; both were initially annexed to theBombay Presidency ofBritish India.[77][78][79] After the Anglo-Mysore wars, the parts ofMalabar Coast, those became British colonies, were organized into a district ofBritish India. Later the region was transferred into theMadras Presidency in 1800.[3] The administrative headquarters were at Calicut (Kozhikode). Local affairs were managed by the District Board at Calicut along with Taluk Boards located atMalappuram,Thalassery,Palakkad andMananthavady.[80] Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership ofKerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support inThalassery-Wayanad region.[3] During the 19th century, British established their army stations atKannur,Malappuram, andCalicut. Malappuram which was one of the European military stations in Madras presidency since 1852, also became the special police force headquarters of Malabar District, with the establishment of theMalabar Special Police in 1885.[5] British in Malabar also convertedThiyyar army, called as Thiyya pattalam into a special regiment centered at Thalassery called as TheThiyyar Regiment in 1904.[81][82][83][84] The oldest railway lines ofKerala lie in Malabar District which was laid in the late 19th century for the transportation of good and services; the line laid fromTirur toBeypore in 1861 being the first among them.
According toWilliam Logan, the Taluks of Malabar could be subdivided on the basis of the feudal lords who ruled them before as given below:
TheAmsoms included in Chirakkal Taluk was classified into two divisions ofKolathunadu andRandathara (also calledPoyanadu). There were 44Amsoms in theTaluk.[2]
Kolathunadu was the land whereKolattiri Rajas (Chirakkal family) were historically considered as the main authority. It was ruled byKolattiri Raja,Mannanars,[85]Arakkal Kingdom, andKingdom of Mysore in various periods.[2] It consisted of the following 36Amsoms:
Randathara was also calledPoyanadu due to the belief that it was theplace from where theCheraman Perumal took his final departure on the journey toMecca. It was originally a part ofKolathunadu, but was treated as a differentNadu.[2] It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
TheAmsoms included in Kottayam Taluk was classified into four divisions-The English Settlement at Tellicherry and Dharmapattanam Islands,Iruvazhinadu,Kurangott Nayar Nadu, andKottayam. There were 28Amsoms in theTaluk.[2]
It was a part of the ancientKolathunadu. Later it became a part of theArakkal kingdom andKingdom of Mysore. The island of Dharmapattanam was claimed by all of theKolattu Rajas,Kottayam Rajas, and Arakkal Bibi.[2] The English had settled here and started a factory here. It consisted of the following 4Amsoms:
It was also under theKolathunadu earlier. When the English factory was established atThalassery,Iruvazhinadu was held by six families ofNambiars – Kunnummal, Chandroth, Kizhakkedath, Kampurath, Narangozhi, and Kariyad Nambiars.Kurangott Nayar's possession also probably formed part of the original territory ofIruvazhinadu.[2] It consisted of the following 6Amsoms:
It laid between the English settlement atThalassery and the French settlement atMahe.[2] It consisted of the following twoAmsoms.
It was also earlier a part ofKolathunadu. TheKottayam Rajas (also known asPuranattu Rajas in the meaning of foreignKshatriya caste) received their territory from theKolattu Rajas.Pazhassi Raja was aKottayam Raja.[2] It consisted of the following 16Amsoms.
TheAmsoms included in Wynad Taluk was classified into three divisions-North Wynad,South Wynad, andSoutheast Wynad. There were 16Amsoms in theTaluk.[86] Wynad was a separate Revenue Division within Malabar District until 1924.[11]
Wynad was ruled by various kingdoms includingKutumbiyas,[87]Kadambas,Western Chalukyas,[88]Hoysalas,[89]Vijayanagaras, and theKingdom of Mysore, in various periods. Wynad was home to many tribes. Wynad has relations with theKingdom of Kottayam andKurumbranad. Some parts were ruled by theKottayam dynasty.[86]
It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
It consisted of the following 6Amsoms:
It was the regions included in theGudalur andPandalur Taluks of presentNilgiris district. Southeast Wynad was a part of Malabar District until 31 March 1877, when it was transferred to the neighbouringNilgiris district due to the heavy population of Malabar and the small area of Nilgiris.[86] It consisted of the following 3Amsoms.
TheAmsoms included in Kurumbranad Taluk was classified into five divisions-Kadathanad,Payyormala,Payanad,Kurumbranad, andThamarassery (SomeAmsoms ofKurumbranad andThamarassery were included in the Kozhikode Taluk). There were 57Amsoms in the Taluk.[2]
It was also part of theKolathunadu earlier. It formed a major portion of theThekkalankur (Southern Regent), or the second headquarters of theKolattiri Rajas. When the English company settled atThalassery, Kadathanad was under the ancestors of theKadathanad Rajas, who was then calledBavnores of Badagara.[2] It consisted of the following 31Amsoms:
It was under the control of theNairs of Payyormala (Paleri, Avinyat, and Kutali Nairs). They were independent chieftains with some theoretical dependence on both theKurumbranad and theZamorin of Calicut.[2] It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
It was dependent on theZamorin of Calicut.[2] It consisted of the following 9Amsoms:
It was subjected to theKurumbranad family, which was connected with theKingdom of Kottayam.[2] It consisted of the following 9Amsoms in Kurumbranad and Kozhikode Taluks:
It was also subjected to theKottayam Rajas.[2] It consisted of the following 9Amsoms in Kurumbranad and Kozhikode Taluks:
TheAmsoms included in Kozhikode Taluk was classified into three divisions-Polanad,Beypore (Northern Parappanad), andPuzhavayi. There were 41Amsoms in the Taluk.[2] (As stated earlier, a part ofKurumbranad andThamarasseri historical divisions of Kurumbranad Taluk was also included in the Kozhikode Taluk.)
Polanad was ruled by thePorlathiri Rajas before the conquest ofKozhikode by theZamorin of Calicut. After the conquest, the Zamorins shifted their headquarters fromNediyiruppu inEranad toKozhikode. It became the capital of the Zamorins.[2] It consisted of the following 22Amsoms:
Parappanad kingdom was a dependent of theZamorin of Calicut headquartered atParappanangadi. It was divided into Northern Parappanad and Southern Parappanad. Northern Parappanad was headquartered atBeypore.[2] It consisted of the following 3Amsoms:
It was ruled by its ownNairs who had a dependence on both of theZamorin of Calicut and theKurumbranad.[2] It consisted of the following 9Amsoms:
TheAmsoms included in Ernad Taluk was classified into four divisions-Parappur (Southern Parappanad),Ramanad,Cheranad, andEranad. There were 52Amsoms in the Taluk.[2] (A part of Cheranad division was under Ponnani Taluk).
SouthernParappanad was a dependent of theZamorin of Calicut.Parappanangadi, the headquarters of Parappanad royal family, was at Southern Parappanad.[2] It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
Ramanad was directly ruled by theZamorin of Calicut.[2] It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
Cheranad was also directly ruled by theZamorin of Calicut.[2]Cheranad was scattered in Eranad and Ponnani Taluks. The headquarters of Cheranad wasTirurangadi. It consisted of the following 17Amsoms:
Eranad was the original headquarters of theZamorin of Calicut. It was later changed toKozhikode with the conquest ofPolanad. It also was under the direct rule of the Zamorin.[2] It consisted of the following 26Amsoms:
TheAmsoms included in Walluvanad Taluk was classified into four divisions-Vellatiri (Walluvanad proper),Walluvanad,Nedunganad, andKavalappara. There were 64Amsoms in the Taluk.[2]
Vellatiri (Walluvanad Proper) was the sole remaining territory of theWalluvanad Raja (Valluvakonathiri), who had once ruled majority of theSouth Malabar. A major part of Ernad Taluk was under Walluvanad before the expansion of theErnad in 13th–14th centuries. Some of theAmsoms in this division was part of the Ernad Taluk.[2] It consisted of the following 26Amsoms:
TheAmsoms in this division was comparatively later acquisition by theZamorin in the territory of theWalluvanad Raja.[2] It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
Nedunganad had been under theZamorin for some time. After the disintegration ofPerumals of Mahodayapuram, Nedunganad became independent. It was ruled byNedungadis. Later it came under theZamorin's kingdom.[2] It consisted of the following 27Amsoms:
Kavalappara had its ownNairs, who owed a sort of nominal allegiance both to theZamorin of Calicut and theKingdom of Cochin.[2] It consisted of the following 6Amsoms:
TheAmsoms included in Ponnani Taluk was classified into three divisions-Vettathunad,Koottanad,Chavakkad, and theIsland of Chetvai. There were 73Amsoms in the Taluk.[2]
Vettathunad, also known as theKingdom of Tanur, was a coastal city-state kingdom in theMalabar Coast. It was ruled by theVettathu Raja, who was dependent on theZamorin of Calicut. TheKshatriya family of theVettathu Rajas became extinct with the death of the lastRaja on 24 May 1793.[2]Vettathunad consisted of the following 21Amsoms:
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The second home of theZamorin of Calicut wasThrikkavil Kovilakam atPonnani inKoottanad. The Zamorin had control over theKoottanad.[2] It consisted of the following 24Amsoms:
Chavakkad had been under the suzerainty of theZamorin.[2] It consisted of the following 14Amsoms:
TheIsland of Chetvai had been earlier under the suzerainty of theZamorin, but it came under the possession of the Dutch in 1717.[2] It consisted of the following 7Amsoms:
TheAmsoms included in Palghat Taluk was classified into three divisions-Palghat,Temmalapuram, andNaduvattam. There were 56Amsoms in the Taluk.[2]
Palghat was ruled by thePalghat Rajas. Sometime previously to 1757, theZamorin of Calicut, theKingdom of Valluvanad, and theKingdom of Cochin had tried to annex Palghat. Cochin had annexedChittur region.Walluvanad Raja had a nominal sovereignty over theNairs ofKongad,Edathara, andMannur.[2] Palghat division consisted of the following 23Amsoms:
Temmalapuram consisted of the following 10Amsoms:
Naduvattam was originally under thePalghat Raja. Later theZamorin of Calicut annexedNaduvattam into his kingdom.[2] It consisted of the following 23Amsoms:
The ExceptionalNadus included the British colonies which were included in the Malabar District, those were detached from the mainlandTaluks of Malabar District by land or sea.[2]
These islands were the territory ofArakkal kingdom outside the town ofKannur.[2] They remained in Malabar district until the formation of the state ofKerala in 1956. It consisted of the following 5 inhabited islands ofLakshadweep:[2]
The uninhabited island ofBangaram was also a part.
In 1814, the Dutch settlements atFort Kochi region of presentKochi city was ceded toEast India Company.[2] They were attached to the Malabar District.[2] They remained in the district until the formation of the state ofKerala in 1956. The settlement consisted of the town and fort ofKochi. It was the erstwhile municipality ofFort Kochi. In 1664, the municipality ofFort Kochi was established byDutch Malabar, making it the first municipality inIndian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[50] It consisted of the following gardens orPattams:[2]
Those were the British colonies surrounded by the Kingdom ofTravancore to three sides andArabian Sea to one side.[2]Thangassery is actually a part of the city ofKollam.Anchuthengu lies nearAttingal inThiruvananthapuram.[2] LaterThangassery andAnchuthengu were transferred from Malabar toTirunelveli district on 1 July 1927.[11]
The district was the venue for many of the Mappila revolts (uprisings against the British East India Company in Kerala) between 1792 and 1921. It is estimated that there were about 830 riots, large and small, during this period. Muttichira revolt, Mannur revolt, Cherur revolt, Manjeri revolt, Wandoor revolt, Kolathur revolt, Ponnani revolt, and Thrikkalur revolt are some important revolts during this period. During 1841–1921 there were more than 86 revolutions against the British officials alone.[90] East India Company made an arrangement to collect revenue through Zamorin. However, a revolt under the leadership of Manjeri Athan Gurukkal took place opposing it in 1849.[91]
The Malabar district political conference ofIndian National Congress held atManjeri on 28 April 1920 strengthenedIndian independence movement and national movement in Malabar District.[92] That conference declared that theMontagu–Chelmsford Reforms were not able to satisfy the needs ofBritish India. It also argued for land reform to seek solutions for the problems caused by the tenancy that existed in Malabar. However, the decision widened the drift betweenextremists and moderates within Congress. The conference resulted in the dissatisfaction of landlords with the Indian National Congress. It caused the leadership of the Malabar district Congress Committee to come under the control of the extremists who stood for labourers and the middle class.[3] Eranad, Valluvanad, and Ponnani Taluks had been part ofKhilafat Movement just after the Manjeri conference. The Khilafatnon-cooperation demonstration conducted atKalpakanchery in Ponnani Taluk (now a part of Tirur Taluk) on 22 March 1921 under the leadership ofK. P. Kesava Menon was attended by about 20,000 people. The first all Kerala provincial conference of Indian National Congress held atOttapalam in April 1921 also influenced the rebellion.Malabar Rebellion of 1921 was the last and important among the Mappila rebellions.
The cities/towns ofMalappuram,Manjeri,Kondotty,Perinthalmanna, andTirurangadi were the main strongholds of the rebels. TheBattle of Pookkottur occurred as a part of the rebellion. After the army, police, and British authorities fled, the declaration of independence took place in over 200 villages inEranad,Valluvanad,Ponnani, andKozhikode taluks.[93] The new country was given the nameMalayala Rajyam (The land of Malayalam).[94] On 25 August 1921,Variyan Kunnathu Kunjahammed Haji inaugurated the Military Training Center atAngadipuram, which was started by the revolutionary government. The feudal customs ofKumpil Kanji andKanabhumi were abolished and the tenants were made landowners. A tax exemption was given for one year and a tax was imposed on the movement of goods from Wayanad to the Madras Presidency.[95] Similar to the British, the structure of administration was built uponCollector, Governor,Viceroy, and King.[96] The parallel government established courts, tax centers, food storage centers, the military, and the legal police. Passport system was introduced for those in the new country.[97][98] Although the nation's lifespan is considered to have been less than six months, some British officials have suggested that the region was ruled by a parallel government for more than a year.[99][100]
The rebels won to establish self-rule in the region for about six months. However, less than six months after the declaration of autonomy, the British managed to recapture it, and put it under the direct control of British Army Commander-in-Chief Chief Rawlson, General Barnett Stuart, Intelligence Chief Maurice Williams, and Police General Armitage. Many of the important British military regiments including Dorset, Karen, Yenier, Linston, Rajputana, Gorkha, Garwale, and Chin Kutchin reached Malabar for the reannexation of theSouth Malabar.[101] TheWagon tragedy (1921) is still a saddening memory of the Malabar rebellion, where 64 prisoners died on 20 November 1921.[102] The prisoners had been taken into custody following the Mappila Rebellion in various parts of the district. Their deaths through apparent negligence generated sympathy forIndian independence movement.
After the Indian independence, Madras Presidency was reorganized into Madras state, which was divided along linguistic lines on 1 November 1956, when Malabar District was merged with erstwhileKasaragod Taluk immediately to the north and the state ofTravancore-Cochin to the south to form the state of Kerala. Malabar District was divided into the three districts ofKozhikode,Palakkad, andKannur on 1 January 1957. TheChavakkad region of thePonnani Taluk was transferred to theThrissur district.Malappuram District was created from parts ofKozhikode andPalakkad in 1969, andWayanad District was created in 1980 from parts ofKozhikode andKannur.
Malabar district, also known as the Malayalam district, bears its name from the hilly nature of many areas in the district.[1] It was one of the two districts of Madras presidency, which lied in the western coast (Malabar coast) of India, the other being theSouth Canara. The mainland area of Malabar District (excludingLakshadweep Islands andFort Kochi region), was surrounded bySouth Canara (Mangalore) to north, the princely states ofCoorg andMysore to northeast, the British districts ofNilgiris (Ooty) andCoimbatore to southeast, and the princely state ofCochin to south.[1]North Malabar andSouth Malabar was divided by the riverKorapuzha.[1] Wayanad, Valluvanad, and Palakkad Taluks hadn't seacoast, whereas the remaining Taluks in the district had coastal areas.[1] With an exception of theLakshadweep islands, the district was wedged between theLakshadweep Sea and theWestern Ghats.Wayanad, which forms a continuation ofMysore Plateau, was the onlyPlateau in Malabar as well as Kerala. The district was widely scattered and consists of the following parts:-
TheWestern Ghats form a continuous mountain range on the eastern border of the district. Only break in the Ghats was formed by thePalakkad Gap. The western part of the district was sandy coast. The Ghats in the district maintained an average elevation of 1500 m, which might occasionally go up to 2500 m.[1] In Kozhikode Taluk, they turned sharply eastwards and after passing theNilambur valley in Ernad Taluk, they continued further south along the eastern portions of Ernad and Walluvanad Taluks and the northern portion of Palghat Taluk.[1]Palakkad Gap broke the Ghats in Palghat Taluk. The highest peaks in Malabar District was located inNilambur region on the vicinity ofNilgiri Mountains.[1] The 2,554 m highMukurthi peak, which is situated in the border of modern-dayNilambur Taluk andOoty Taluk, and is also the fifth-highest peak inSouth India as well as the third-highest in Kerala afterAnamudi (2,696 m) andMeesapulimala (2,651 m), was the highest point of elevation in Malabar district. It is also the highest peak in Kerala outside theIdukki district. The 2,383 highAnginda peak, which is located closer to Malappuram-Palakkad-Nilgiris district border is the second-highest peak.[1]Vavul Mala, a 2,339 m high peak situated on the trijunction of Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram,Wayanad, andThamarassery Taluk ofKozhikode districts, was the third-highest point of elevation in the district.[1] Apart from the main continuous range of Western Ghats, there were many small undulating hills in the lowland of the district.[1]Tropical evergreen forests were present in the mountain ranges in the district.[1] The eastern regions in the modern-day districts ofWayanad,Malappuram (Chaliyar valley atNilambur), andPalakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of theNilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of theMysore Plateau, are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts ofKarnataka.[103]
The largest three rivers in Malabar District were,Bharathappuzha (RiverPonnani),Chaliyar,Kadalundippuzha, all of them flowing throughSouth Malabar.Valapattanam River was the largest river inNorth Malabar region which empties intoArabian Sea nearKannur. Two rivers flowed eastwards in the district –Kabini River in Wynad Taluk andBhavani River in the high hills of the Walluvanad Taluk. Both of them were tributaries of the RiverKaveri.[1] Other rivers in the district were west-flowing which flows into theArabian Sea. Coastal backwaters likeKavvayi and Biyyam were also there. The important west-flowing rivers includedValapattanam River in Chirakkal Taluk,Anjarakandi River in Kottayam Taluk,Mahé River andKuttiadi River in Kurumbranad Taluk,Chaliyar in Ernad Taluk,Kadalundi River in Ernad and Walluvanad Taluks, andBharathappuzha in Ponnani and Palghat Taluks.[1] Other rivers were Kottoor, Irikkur, Vannathi, Pazhayangadi, Perumba, Kuppam, Kuttikol, and Kavvayi in Chirakkal Taluk, Bavali and Iritti in Kottayam Taluk (Bavali flows through Wynad too), Korapuzha in Kurumbranad and Kozhikode Taluks, Panamarampuzha and Manantoddy River in Wynad Taluk, Kallayi, Irittuzhi, Irungi, and Mukkam in Kozhikode Taluk, Thuthapuzha in Ponnani and Walluvanad Taluks, Olipuzha and Siruvani in Walluvanad Taluk, and Kalpathipuzha, Yakkarapuzha, and Gayathripuzha in Palghat Taluk.[1]
.svg)
Malabar district had 5 revenue divisions namely,Thalassery (Tellicherry),Kozhikode (Calicut),Malappuram,Palakkad (Palghat), andFort Cochin and 10 Taluks within them.[1] The plateau ofWayanad was a separate Revenue Division until 1924. Later it was merged withThalassery.
Headquartered atThalassery[1]
Headquartered atFort Cochin[1]
Native castes in the erstwhile Malabar District includeNambudiriBrahmin,Nair,Thiyya,Mappila, and Scheduled Castes and Tribes.[2]
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
|---|---|---|
| 1871 | 2,261,250 | — |
| 1881 | 2,365,035 | +0.45% |
| 1891 | 2,652,565 | +1.15% |
| 1901 | 2,800,555 | +0.54% |
| 1911 | 3,015,119 | +0.74% |
| 1921 | 3,098,871 | +0.27% |
| 1931 | 3,533,944 | +1.32% |
| 1941 | 3,929,425 | +1.07% |
| 1951 | 4,758,842 | +1.93% |
| Source:[104] | ||
| Religion | 1871[106] | 1951[105] | |
| 1 | Hinduism | 72.43%[106] | 63.25%[105] |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | Islam | 25.72%[106] | 33.49%[105] |
| 3 | Christianity | 1.43%[106] | 3.24%[105] |
Among various Hindu castes,Thiyyas were the most populous in the erstwhile Malabar District according to 1881 Census of India.[107] Thiyyas formed nearly 35% of the total Hindus of Malabar in 1881 but were considered to be outside the caste system but yet they were considered shudra by some.[107] They were present in large numbers in almost all Taluks of Malabar except Palghat, Cochin, and Laccadive Islands.[107] Thiyyas were similar toBillavas ofTulu Nadu.[108] In Palghat Taluk, there wereEzhavas instead of Thiyyas.[107]
Nairs were the second-largest caste accounting for nearly 20% of the Hindu population in 1881.[107] Their presence was scattered all over Malabar except Laccadive and Minicoy Islands.[107] According to William Logan, the main subdivisions among the Nair of erstwhile Malabar District wereMenon,Nayanar (inNorth Malabar),Menoky,Moopil Nair, Pada Nair, Kuruppu,Kaimal,Panikkar,Kiryathil Nair, Moothar, Oore, Kidavu,Kartha,Eradi (inEranad andKozhikode),Vellodi (inValluvanad),Nedungadi (inNedunganad), Mannadiyar (inPalakkad), and Manavalan.[107] Nairs were similar to theBunts ofTulu Nadu.[108]
Malabar Manual states that the royal family ofParappanad belonged toKshatriya caste, from where members forTravancore royal family were usually selected.[107] The rulers of theKingdom of Kottayam (Thalassery) also belonged to Kshatriyas.[107]Ambalavasi population was higher inSouth Malabar, compared to that in North Malabar.[107]
NambudiriBrahmins, who had the highest position incaste system, were mainly concentrated around the riverBharathappuzha, mainly in theTaluks ofValluvanad andPonnani, inSouth Malabar.[107] According to 1881 Census, more than 50% of allNambudiris in Malabar were settled in Valluvanad and Ponnani taluks.[107] Nearly 90% of the Nambudiris of Malabar were fromSouth Malabar, whileNorth Malabar contributed only around 10%.[107]Kozhikode andEranad came next to Valluvanad and Ponnani in Namboodiri population.[107]Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were the head of all Namboodiri of Kerala belong toAthavanad in erstwhilePonnani taluk.[107] There were someIyer Brahmins in Palghat Taluk andTuluva Brahmins inNorth Malabar.[107]
Cherumar/Cheramar population was comparatively higher in the erstwhile Taluk ofCheranad (merged with Eranad and Ponnani in the 1860s) and its surroundings.[107] Nearly 70% of all Cherumars of Malabar District in 1857 census were from the Taluks of Eranad, Valluvanad, Ponnani, and Palakkad.[107] William Logan notes in his Malabar Manual that a larger number of Cherumar caste converted intoIslam in the Taluks of Eranad, Ponnani, and Valluvanad during 1871–1881, comparing the census reports of 1871 and 1881.[107]
Muslim population was higher inSouth Malabar compared to its northern counterparts. Muslims formed nearly 100% of population in Laccadive Islands, and more than 50% inEranad Taluk, according to 1881 Census.[107] Muslim population was much higher than the district average in the Taluks of Valluvanad and Ponnani too in 1881.[107] At the same timePalakkad Taluk had the least population of Muslims in 1881.[107] Their population was higher in former territories of theZamorin ofCalicut.[107]Mappila Muslims of Malabar were similar to theBeary Muslims ofTulu Nadu.[108]
Fort Cochin Taluk had the highest Christian population in Malabar while Valluvanad Taluk and Laccadive Islands had the least.[107] The presence ofSaint Thomas Christians was significant only in the southern portions ofPonnani taluk (Chavakkad region) andFort Kochi.[107]
The Talukwise area and population of Malabar district as of1951 Census of India are given below:
| # | Taluk | Area (in sq.miles) | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| Thalassery Division | |||
| 1 | Chirakkal (Kannur) | 688 | 534,890 |
| 2 | Kottayam (Thalassery) | 484 | 369,580 |
| 3 | Wayanad (Mananthavady) | 821 | 169,280 |
| Kozhikode Division | |||
| 4 | Kurumbranad (Vatakara) | 506 | 554,091 |
| 5 | Kozhikode & Laccadive Islands | 380 | 530,364 |
| Malappuram Division | |||
| 6 | Eranad (Manjeri) | 978 | 614,283 |
| 7 | Valluvanad (Perinthalmanna) | 873 | 573,457 |
| Palakkad Division | |||
| 8 | Ponnani | 427 | 793,805 |
| 9 | Palakkad | 643 | 585,651 |
| Fort Cochin Division | |||
| 10 | Fort Cochin | 2 | 32,941 |
| Total | 5,802 | 4,758,842 | |
Although there were several settlements across Malabar district during the Madras Presidency or Pre-Independence era, only a handful were officially considered as 'Towns'. Those wereCannanore,Tellicherry,Badagara,Calicut,Malappuram,Tanur,Ponnani,Palghat andFort Kochi.[109] The municipalities ofKozhikode,Palakkad,Fort Kochi,Kannur, andThalassery, were formed on 1 November 1866 according to the Madras Act 10 of 1865 (Amendment of the Improvements in Towns act 1850)[110][111][109][112] of theBritish Indian Empire, making all of them the first modern municipalities inKerala. Even theThiruvananthapuram municipality was formed in 1920 (54 years later).
| M: Municipality: | Towns with a local governing body constituted under Madras Town Improvement Act of 1865. |
| T: Non Municipal Town: | Towns without a governing body, listed in Madras District Records. |
| C:Cantonment | Towns with a Military base in Madras Presidency. |
| A.C: Administrative Center: | Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order. |
| City/Town | Year Declared | Type | Taluk | Revenue Division | Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-Independence / Late 1800s | (1881) | ||||
| Kozhikode | 1866 | M, C, AC | Kozhikode | Kozhikode | 57,085 |
| Palakkad | 1866 | M, AC | Palghat | Palghat | 36,339 |
| Thalassery | 1866 | M, AC | Kottayam | Tellicherry | 26,410 |
| Kannur | 1866 | M, C | Chirakkal | Tellicherry | 26,386 |
| Fort Kochi | 1866 | M, AC | Fort Cochin | Fort Cochin | 15,698 |
| Early 1900s | (1901) | ||||
| Badagara | 1902 | T | Kurumbranad | Kozhikode | 11,319 |
| Ponnani | 1902 | T | Ponnani | Palghat | 10,562 |
| Malappuram | 1904 | T, C, AC | Ernad | Malappuram | 9,216 |
| Tanur | 1912 | T | Ponnani | Palghat | 8,409 |
| Mid 1900s | (1941) | ||||
| Pandalayini (Koyilandy) | 1941 | T | Kurumbranad | Kozhikode | 12,713 |
| Feroke | 1941 | T | Ernad | Malappuram | 6,249 |
| Manjeri | 1941 | T | Ernad | Malappuram | 5,547 |
| Trikkandiyur (Tirur) | 1941 | T | Ponnani | Palghat | 9,489 |
The settlements with a population of more than 50,000 were considered as cities and those had between 10,000 and 50,000 were considered as towns.[105] The following table gives the cities and towns of Malabar district classified by their population as of the1951 Census:
| City/Town | Taluk | Population (1951) |
|---|---|---|
| Cities | ||
| Kozhikode | Kozhikode | 158,724 |
| Palakkad | Palghat | 69,504 |
| Towns | ||
| Kannur | Chirakkal | 42,431 |
| Thalassery | Kottayam | 40,040 |
| Fort Kochi | Fort Cochin | 29,881 |
| Panthalayini (Koyilandy) | Kurumbranad | 29,001 |
| Ponnani | Ponnani | 23,606 |
| Ottapalam | Walluvanad | 22,695 |
| Badagara | Kurumbranad | 20,964 |
| Feroke | Ernad | 19,463 |
| Tanur | Ponnani | 17,888 |
| Trikkandiyur (Tirur) | Ponnani | 11,830 |
| Shoranur | Walluvanad | 11,596 |
| Manjeri | Ernad | 10,357 |
| Total | 507,975 | |
At the time of1951 Census of India, Malabar District was divided into 5 Municipalities and 100 Panchayat Boards.[114] Among them 2 municipalities (Kozhikode andPalakkad) were treated as cities.[114] The municipalities wereKozhikode,Palakkad,Kannur,Thalassery, andFort Cochin.[114] The other towns mentioned above, i.e.,Shoranur,Ottapalam,Manjeri,Ponnani,Tanur,Trikkandiyur (Tirur),Feroke,Pandalayini (Quilandy), andBadagara, were treated as Panchayat towns.[114] The Taluk-wise details of 5 Municipalities and 100 Panchayat Boards under Malabar District Board at that time are given below:[114]
| Abbreviations | ||
| T: TOWN | ||
|---|---|---|
| It maybe either a Municipal Town or a Non-Municipal Town. The settlements exceeding a population of 10,000 and had some sort of economic importance were considered as towns according to1951 Census of India[114] | ||
| C: CITY | ||
| The Municipalities exceeding a population of 50,000 and had larger economic importance were treated as cities according to1951 Census of India[114] | ||
| TELLICHERRY DIVISION | ||
| Chirakkal Taluk (10)[114] | ||
| Cannanore Municipality(T) | ||
| 1.Payyanur | 2.Karivellur-Peralam | 3.Ramanthali |
| 4.Cheruthazham-Kunhimangalam | 5.Azhikode | 6.Pappinisseri |
| 7.Kankole | 8.Baliapatam | 9.Chirakkal |
| 10.Puzhathi | ||
| Kottayam Taluk (15)[114] | ||
| Tellicherry Municipality(T) | ||
| 11.Panoor | 12.Kuthuparamba | 13.Kadirur |
| 14.Kariyad | 15.Dharmadom | 16.Kottayam |
| 17.Eranholi | 18.Eruvatty | 19.Peringalam |
| 20.Pinarayi | 21.Pathiriyad | 22. Olavilam |
| 23. Vadakkumpad | 24. Menapram | 25. Kodiyeri |
| Wynad Taluk (8)[114] | ||
| 26.Thavinhal | 27.Manantoddy | 28.Thirunelly |
| 29.Kalpetta | 30.Vythiri | 31.Meppadi |
| 32.Kidanganad | 33.Vellamunda | |
| KOZHIKODE DIVISION | ||
| Kurumbranad Taluk (14)[114] | ||
| 34.Badagara(T) | 35.Cheruvannur | 36.Unnikulam |
| 37.Eramala | 38.Balussery | 39.Edacheri |
| 40. Kunnummakkara | 41.Meppayur | 42.Villiappally |
| 43.Nadapuram | 44.Chorode | 45.Panthalayani (Koyilandy)(T) |
| 46. Veloor | 47.Karthikappalli | |
| Kozhikode Taluk (3)[114] | ||
| Kozhikode Municipality(C) | ||
| 48.Beypore | 49.Thamarassery | 50.Koduvally |
| MALAPPURAM DIVISION | ||
| Ernad Taluk (5)[114] | ||
| 51.Nilambur | 52.Nediyiruppu | 53.Manjeri(T) |
| 54.Kondotty | 55.Kottakkal | |
| Walluvanad Taluk (10)[114] | ||
| 56.Shoranur(T) | 57.Ottapalam(T) | 58.Pattambi |
| 59.Thiruvegappura | 60.Perinthalmanna | 61.Cherpulassery |
| 62.Perur | 63.Kuruvattoor | 64.Vaniyamkulam |
| 65.Karakkad | ||
| PALGHAT DIVISION | ||
| Ponnani Taluk (21)[114] | ||
| 66.Ponnani(T) | 67.Kalpakanchery | 68.Trikkandiyur (Tirur)(T) |
| 69.Tanur Nagaram | 70.Tanur(T) | 71.Ozhur |
| 72.Andathode | 73.Vadakkekad | 74.Attupuram |
| 75.Vylathur | 76.Veliyankode | 77.Ayiroor |
| 78.Maranchery | 79.Kottapadi | 80.Chavakkad |
| 81.Chittaattukara | 82.Elavally | 83.Pavaratty |
| 84.Kundazhiyur | 85.Venkitangu | 86.Engandiyur |
| Palghat Taluk (14)[114] | ||
| Palghat Municipality(C) | ||
| 87.Peringottukurissi | 88.Kottayi | 89. Tholanur |
| 90.Vadakkencherry | 91.Kizhakkancherry | 92.Kollengode |
| 93.Vadavannur | 94.Pallassana | 95.Koduvayur |
| 96. Thenur | 97.Elappully | 98.Kattusseri |
| 99. Paruthipully | 100.Mankara | |
| FORT COCHIN DIVISION | ||
| Fort Cochin Taluk (0)[114] | ||
| Fort Cochin Municipality(T) | ||
In the first election to the Lok Sabha conducted under the provisions of the Indian Constitution after Independence, Malabar district had five constituencies,Kannur,Thalassery,Kozhikode,Malappuram andPonnani.[115]
| Constituency | Winner | Party | Runner-up | Party | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Kannur | A. K. Gopalan | CPI | C.K.K Govindan Nayar | INC | ||
| K.S.Subramania Iyer | IND | ||||||
| 2 | Thalassery | Nettur P. Damodaran | KMPP | P. Kunhiraman | INC | ||
| P.M.V Kunhiraman Nambiar | SP | ||||||
| 3 | Kozhikode | Achuthan Damodaran Menon | KMPP | Ummar Koya Parappil | INC | ||
| Ramakrislina Naick,R.N. Ruhur | IND | ||||||
| 4 | Malappuram | B. Pocker Sahib Bahadur | IUML | T.V. Chathukutty Nair | INC | ||
| Kumhali Karikedan | CPI | ||||||
| 5 | Ponnani | K. Kelappan | KMPP | Karunakara Menon | INC | ||
| Vella Eacharan Iyyani | INC | Massan Gani | IND | ||||
25 State Legislative Assembly constituencies were allotted from the Malabar District to theFirst Assembly of Madras State. 4 of them were dual-member constituencies. The total number of seats in the district was 29 (including dual member constituencies).
| Constituency | Winner | Party | Runner-up | Party | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Nattika | Gopalakrishnan | CPI | Raman | INC | ||
| 2 | Ponnani | N. Gopala Menon | INC | K. C. Sankarann | INC | ||
| E. T. Kunhan | CPI | A. C. Raman | KMPP | ||||
| 3 | Tirur | K. Uppi Saheb | IUML | K. Ahmad Kutty | INC | ||
| 4 | Thrithala | K. B. Menon | SP | P. K. Moideen Kutty | INC | ||
| 5 | Perinthalmanna | Kunhimahamad Shafee Kallingal | IUML | P. Ahmad Kutty Sadhu | CPI | ||
| 6 | Mannarkkad | K. C. Gopalanunni | IND | Kurikal Ahmed | IND | ||
| 7 | Pattambi | V. Sankara Narayana Menon | KMPP | A. Ramachandra Nedungadi | INC | ||
| 8 | Ottapalam | M. Narayana Kurup | KMPP | C. P. Madhavan Nair | INC | ||
| 9 | Palakkad | K. Ramakrishnan | IND | P. Vasu Menon | INC | ||
| 10 | Alathur | K. Krishnan | CPI | Y. R. Ramanatha Iyer | IND | ||
| O. Koran | KMPP | E. Eacharan | INC | ||||
| 11 | Malappuram | Miniyadam Chadayan | IUML | Karupadata Ibrahim | INC | ||
| Mohammad Haje Seethi | IUML | Kallayan Kunhambu | INC | ||||
| 12 | Kottakkal | Chakkeeri Ahmad Kutty | IUML | Kunjunni Nedumgadi, Ezhuthassan Kalathil | INC | ||
| 13 | Kozhikode | K. P. Kutty Krishnan Nair | INC | E. M. S. Namboodiripad | CPI | ||
| 14 | Chevayur | A. Appu | INC | Ayyadhan Balagopalan | KMPP | ||
| 15 | Wayanad | Manyangode Padmanabha Gounder | SP | Kozhipurath Madhava Menon | INC | ||
| Chomadi Velukkan | SP | Veliyan Nocharamooyal | INC | ||||
| 16 | Koyilandy | Chemmaratha Kunhriramakurup | KMPP | Anantapuram Patinhare Madam Vasudevan Nair | INC | ||
| 17 | Perambra | Kunhiram Kidavu Polloyil | KMPP | Kalandankutty, Puthiyottil | INC | ||
| 18 | Vadakara | Moidu Keloth | SP | Ayatathil Chathu | INC | ||
| 19 | Nadapuram | E. K. Sankara Varma Raja | INC | K. Thacharakandy | CPI | ||
| 20 | Thalassery | C. H. M. Kanaran | CPI | K. P. M. Raghavan Nair | INC | ||
| 21 | Kuthuparamba | Krishna Iyer | IND | Harindranabham, Kalliyat Thazhathuveethil | SP | ||
| 22 | Mattanur | Madhavan Nambiar, Kallorath | CPI | Subbarao | INC | ||
| 23 | Kannur | Kariath Sreedharan | KMPP | Pamban Madhavan | INC | ||
| 24 | Taliparamba | T. C. Narayanan Nambiar | CPI | V. V. Damodaran Nayanar | INC | ||
| 25 | Payyanur | K. P. Gopalan | CPI | Vivekananda Devappa Sernoy | INC | ||
The Malabar cuisine depicts it culture and heritage. It is famous forMalabar biriyani. The city ofCalicut is also famous forHaluva called asSweet Meat by Europeans due to the texture of the sweet. Kozhikode has a main road in the town namedMittai Theruvu (Sweet Meat Street, or S.M. Street for short). It derived this name from the numerousHalwa stores which used to dot the street.
Another speciality isbanana chips, which are made crisp and wafer-thin. Other popular dishes include seafood preparations (prawns, mussels, mackerel) . Vegetarian fare includes thesadya.
Malabar cuisine is a blend of traditionalKerala,Persian,Yemenese andArab food culture.[116] This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.[116]Kallummakkaya (mussels)curry,irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat),parottas (soft flatbread),[116]Pathiri (a type of rice pancake)[116] andghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Malabar cuisine—black pepper,cardamom andclove are used profusely.
The Malabar version ofbiryani, popularly known askuzhi mandi inMalayalam is another popular item, which has an influence fromYemen. Various varieties ofbiriyanis likeThalasserybiriyani, Kannurbiriyani,[117] Calicutbiriyani[118] and Ponnanibiriyani[119] are prepared in Malabar.[116]
The snacks includeunnakkaya (deep-fried, boiled ripe banana paste covering a mixture of cashew,raisins and sugar),[120]pazham nirachathu (ripe banana filled withcoconut grating,molasses or sugar),[120]muttamala made ofeggs,[116]chatti pathiri, a dessert made of flour, like a baked, layeredchapati with rich filling,arikkadukka,[121] and more.[116]
However, the newer generation is more inclined towards to Chinese and American food. Chinese food is very popular among the locals.
| District | Taluk/Island |
|---|---|
| Kasaragod district | Kasaragod |
| Manjeshwaram | |
| Hosdurg | |
| Vellarikundu | |
| Kannur district | Taliparamba |
| Kannur | |
| Payyanur | |
| Thalassery | |
| Iritty | |
| Wayanad district | Mananthavady |
| Sulthan Bathery | |
| Vythiri (Kalpetta) | |
| Kozhikode district | Vatakara |
| Koyilandy | |
| Kozhikode | |
| Thamarassery | |
| Nilgiris district | Gudalur |
| Pandalur | |
| Malappuram district | Tirurangadi |
| Eranad (Manjeri) | |
| Nilambur | |
| Perinthalmanna | |
| Kondotty | |
| Tirur | |
| Ponnani | |
| Palakkad district | Mannarkkad |
| Ottappalam | |
| Palakkad | |
| Pattambi | |
| Alathur | |
| Chittur | |
| Thrissur district | Chavakkad |
| Kodungallur (parts) | |
| Ernakulam district | Fort Kochi |
| Lakshadweep | Agatti |
| Andrott | |
| Bangaram | |
| Kalpeni | |
| Kavaratti | |
| Minicoy |
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore theTransactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the serieswithout the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad.
He issued passports to persons wishing to get outside his kingdom
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12°00′38″N75°16′13″E / 12.010650°N 75.270390°E /12.010650; 75.270390
