| Makasarese | |
|---|---|
| Makasar, Makassar, Macassar | |
| Basa Mangkasaraʼ ᨅᨔ ᨆᨀᨔᨑ 𑻤𑻰𑻥𑻠𑻰𑻭 بَاسَ مَڠْكَاسَرَءْ | |
 | |
| Pronunciation | [ɓasamãŋˈkʰasaraʔ] |
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | South Sulawesi (Sulawesi) |
| Ethnicity | Makassarese |
Native speakers | (2.1 million cited 2000 census)[1] |
| Dialects |
|
| |
| Official status | |
| Regulated by | Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | mak |
| ISO 639-3 | mak |
| Glottolog | maka1311 |
 Makassarese language OtherMakassaric languages | |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
Makassarese (/məkasəˈrēz/mə-KASS-ər-EEZ,/məˈkæsər/,/-ˈrēs/-reess;Basa Mangkasaraʼ,Lontara script: ᨅᨔ ᨆᨀᨔᨑ,Makasar script: 𑻤𑻰𑻥𑻠𑻰𑻭,Serang script: بَاسَ مَڠْكَاسَرَءْ,pronounced[ɓasamãŋˈkʰasaraʔ]), sometimes calledMakasar,Makassar, orMacassar, is alanguage of theMakassarese people, spoken inSouth Sulawesi province ofIndonesia. It is a member of theSouth Sulawesi group of theAustronesian language family, and thus closely related to, among others,Buginese, also known as Bugis. The areas where Makassarese is spoken include theGowa,Sinjai,Maros,Takalar,Jeneponto,Bantaeng,Pangkajene and Islands,Bulukumba, andSelayar Islands Regencies, andMakassar. Within theAustronesian language family, Makassarese is part of theSouth Sulawesi language group, although its vocabulary is considered divergent compared to its closest relatives. In 2000, Makassarese had approximately 2.1 million native speakers.
Makassarese is an Austronesian language from the South Sulawesi branch of theMalayo-Polynesian subfamily,[2] specifically theMakassaric group, which also includes bothHighland andCoastal Konjo languages and theSelayar language.[3] The Konjo and Selayar language varieties are sometimes considered dialects of Makassarese. As part of the South Sulawesi language family, Makassarese is also closely related to the Bugis,Mandar, andToraja-Saʼdan languages.[4]
In terms of vocabulary, Makassarese is considered the most distinct among the South Sulawesi languages. The average percentage of vocabulary similarity between Makassarese and other South Sulawesi languages is only 43%.[3] Specifically, the Gowa or Lakiung dialect is the most divergent; the vocabulary similarity of this dialect with other South Sulawesi languages is about 5–10 percentage points lower compared to the vocabulary similarity of Konjo and Selayar with other South Sulawesi languages.[4] However, etymostatistical analysis and functor statistics conducted by linguist Ülo Sirk shows a higher vocabulary similarity percentage (≥ 60%) between Makassarese and other South Sulawesi languages.[5] These quantitative findings support qualitative analyses that place Makassarese as part of the South Sulawesi language family.
The language varieties within the Makassaric group form adialect continuum. A language survey in South Sulawesi conducted by linguists and anthropologists Charles and Barbara Grimes separated the Konjo and Selayar languages from Makassarese. Meanwhile, a subsequent survey by linguists Timothy Friberg and Thomas Laskowske divided the Konjo language into three varieties: Coastal Konjo, Highland Konjo, and Bentong/Dentong.[6] However, in a book on Makassarese grammar published by the Center for Language Development and Cultivation, local linguist Abdul Kadir Manyambeang and his team include the Konjo and Selayar varieties as dialects of Makassarese.[7]
Excluding the Konjo and Selayar varieties, Makassarese can be divided into at least three dialects: the Gowa or Lakiung dialect, the Jeneponto or Turatea dialect, and the Bantaeng dialect.[8][7][9] The main differences among these varieties within the Makassar group lie in vocabulary; their grammatical structures are generally quite similar.[7][9] Speakers of the Gowa dialect tend to switch toIndonesian when communicating with speakers of the Bantaeng dialect or with speakers of the Konjo and Selayar languages, and vice versa. The Gowa dialect is generally considered the prestige variety of Makassarese. As the dialect spoken in the central region, the Gowa dialect is also commonly used by speakers of other varieties within the Makassaric group.[10]
According to a demographic study based on the 2010 census data, about 1.87 millionIndonesians over the age of five speak Makassarese as their mother tongue. Nationally, Makassarese ranks 16th among the 20 languages with the most speakers. Makassar is also the second most-spoken language inSulawesi after Bugis, which has over 3.5 million speakers.[11][12]
The Makassarese language is primarily spoken by theMakassar people,[13] although a small percentage (1.89%) of theBugis people also use it as their mother tongue.[14] Makassarese speakers are concentrated in the southwestern peninsula of South Sulawesi, particularly in the fertile coastal areas around Makassar, Gowa Regency, and Takalar Regency. The language is also spoken by some residents of Maros Regency and Pangkajene and Islands Regency to the north, alongside Bugis. Residents of Jeneponto and Bantaeng Regencies generally identify themselves as part of the Makassarese-speaking community, although the varieties they speak (the Jeneponto or Turatea dialect and the Bantaeng dialect) differ significantly from the dialects used in Gowa and Takalar. The closely related Konjo language is spoken in the mountainous areas of Gowa and along the coast of Bulukumba Regency, while the Selayar language is spoken onSelayar Island, to the south of the peninsula.
Due toMakassarese contact with Aboriginal peoples in Northern Australia, apidgin of Makassarese was used aslingua franca across the region between different Aboriginal groups, though its use declined starting in the early 20th century due to Australian restrictions against Makassarese fishermen in the region and was supplanted by English as alingua franca.[15]
Makassarese is one of the relatively well-developed regional languages in Indonesia.[12] It is still widely used in rural areas and parts of Makassar. Makassarese is also considered important as a marker of ethnic identity. However, in urban communities,code-switching orcode-mixing between Makassar and Indonesian is common. Some urban Makassar residents, especially those from the middle class or with multiethnic backgrounds, also use Indonesian as the primary language in their households.[16]Ethnologue classifies Makassar as a 6b (Threatened) language on theEGIDS scale, indicating that although the language is still commonly used in face-to-face conversations, the natural intergenerational transmission or teaching of the language is beginning to be disrupted.
The following description of Makassarese phonology is based on Jukes (2005).[17]
Makassarese has five vowels:/a/,/e/,/i/,/o/,/u/.[18] The mid vowels are lowered to[ɛ] and[ɔ] in absolute final position and in the vowel sequences/ea/ and/oa/.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Open | a |
The vowel phoneme/e/ tends to be realized as the open-mid vowel[ɛ] when it is at the end of a word or before a syllable containing the sound[ɛ]. Compare, for instance, the pronunciation of/e/ in the wordleʼbaʼ[ˈleʔ.baʔ] 'already' withmange[ˈma.ŋɛ] 'go to'.[18] The phoneme/o/ also has an open-mid allophone [ɔ] when it is at the end of a word or precedes a syllable containing the sound [ɔ], as seen in the wordlompo[ˈlɔ̃m.pɔ] 'big' (compare withórasaʼ[ˈo.ra.saʔ] 'heavy').[19] Regardless of their position within a word, some speakers tend to pronounce these two vowels with a higher (closer) tongue position, making their pronunciation approach that of the phonemes/i/ and/u/.[20]
Vowels can be pronouncednasally when they are aroundnasal consonants within the same syllable. There are two levels of nasalization intensity for vowels: strong nasalization and weak nasalization. Weak nasalization can be found on vowels before nasal consonants that are not at the end of a word. Strong nasalization can be found on vowels before final nasal consonants or generally after nasal consonants. Nasalization can spread to vowels in syllables after nasal vowels if there are no consonants blocking it. However, the intensity of nasalization in vowels like this is not as strong as in the vowels before them, as in the pronunciation of the wordniaʼ[ni͌.ãʔ] 'there is'.[21]
There are 17 consonants in Makassarese, as outlined in the following table.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ⟨ny⟩[a] | ŋ⟨ng⟩ | ||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c | k | ʔ⟨ʼ⟩[b] |
| voiced | b | d | ɟ⟨j⟩ | ɡ | ||
| Fricative | s | h[c] | ||||
| Semivowel | j⟨y⟩ | w | ||||
| Lateral | l | |||||
| Trill | r | |||||
| ||||||
Makassarese consonants except the glottal stop and voiced plosives can begeminated. Some instances of these might result fromProto-Malayo-Polynesian schwa phoneme*ə (now merged intoa), which geminated the following consonant (*bəli >*bəlli >balli 'to buy, price' (compare Indonesianbeli), contrasting withbali 'to oppose').[22]
The phoneme/t/ is the only consonant with a dental pronunciation, unlike the phonemes/ndslr/, which arealveolar consonants. The voiceless plosive phonemes/ptk/ are generally pronounced with slight aspiration (a flow of air), as in the wordskatte[ˈkat̪.t̪ʰɛ] 'we',lampa[ˈlam.pʰa] 'go', andkana[ˈkʰa.nã] 'say'. The phonemes/b/ and/d/ have implosive allophones[ɓ] and[ɗ], especially in word-initial positions, such as inbalu[ˈɓa.lu] 'widow', and after the sound[ʔ], as inaʼdoleng[aʔ.ˈɗo.lẽŋ] 'to let hang'. These two consonants, especially/b/ in word-initial positions, can also be realized as voiceless consonants without aspiration. The palatal phoneme/c/ can be realized as an affricate (a stop sound with a release of fricative)[cç] or even[tʃ]. The phoneme/ɟ/ can also be pronounced as an affricate[ɟʝ]. Jukes analyzes both of these consonants as stop consonants because they have palatal nasal counterparts/ɲ/, just as other oral stop consonants have their own nasal counterparts.
The basic structure of syllables in Makassarese is (C1)V(C2). The position of C1 can be filled by almost any consonant, while the position of C2 has some limitations.[23] In syllables located at the end of a morpheme, C2 can be filled by a stop (T) or a nasal (N), the pronunciation of which is determined byassimilation rules. The sound T assimilates with (is pronounced the same as) voiceless consonants except[h], and is realized as[ʔ] in other contexts. The sound N is realized as a homorganic nasal (pronounced at the same articulation place) before a stop or nasal consonant, assimilates with the consonant's/l/ and/s/, and is realized as[ŋ] in other contexts. On the other hand, in syllables within root forms, Makassarese contrasts an additional sound in the C2 position besides K and N, which is/r/. This analysis is based on the fact that Makassarese distinguishes between the sequences[nr],[ʔr], and[rr] across syllables. However,[rr] can also be considered as the realization of a geminate segment rather than a sequence across syllables.[24]
| V | o | 'oh' (interjection) | ||||
| CV | ri | PREP (particle) | ||||
| VC | uʼ | 'hair' | ||||
| CVC | piʼ | 'birdlime' | ||||
| VV | io | 'yes' | ||||
| VVC | aeng | 'father' | ||||
| CVV | tau | 'person' | ||||
| CVVC | taung | 'year' | ||||
| VCVC | anaʼ | 'child' | ||||
| CVCV | sala | 'wrong' | ||||
| CVCVC | sabaʼ | 'reason' | ||||
| CVCCVC | leʼbaʼ | 'already' | ||||
| CVCVCV | binánga | 'river' | ||||
| CVCVCVC | pásaraʼ | 'market' | ||||
| CVCVCCV | kalúppa | 'forget' | ||||
| CVCCVCVC | kaʼlúrung | 'palm wood' | ||||
| CVCVCVCVC | balakeboʼ | 'herring' | ||||
| CVCVCVCCVC | kalumanynyang | 'rich' | ||||
The sounds/slr/ can be categorized as non-nasal continuous (sounds produced without fully obstructing the flow of air through the mouth) consonants, and none of them can occupy the final position of a syllable except as part of a geminate consonant sequence.[26] Basic words that actually end with these consonants will be appended with an epenthetic vowel identical to the vowel in the preceding syllable, and closed with a glottal stop[ʔ],[27] as in the wordsótereʼ/oter/ 'rope',bótoloʼ/botol/ 'bottle', andrántasaʼ/rantas/ 'mess, untidy'.[28] This additional element is also referred to as the "echo-VC" (paragogic vowel-consonant sequence), and it can affect the position of stress within a word.[29][30]
Generally, base words in Makassarese consist of two or three syllables. However, longer words can be formed due to theagglutinative nature of Makassarese and the highly productivereduplication process.[31] According to Jukes, words with six or seven syllables are commonly found in Makassarese, while base words with just one syllable (that are not borrowed from other languages) are very rare, although there are some interjections and particles consisting of only one syllable.[32]
All consonants except for/ʔ/ can appear in initial position. In final position, only/ŋ/ and/ʔ/ are found.
Consonant clusters only occur medially and (with one exception) can be analyzed as clusters of/ŋ/ or/ʔ/ + consonant. These clusters also arise throughsandhi across morpheme boundaries.
| nasal/lateral | voicelessobstruents | voicedstops +r | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| m | n | ɲ | ŋ | l | p | t | c | k | s | b | d | ɟ | ɡ | r | |
| /ŋ/ | mm | nn | ɲɲ | ŋŋ | ll | mp | nt | ɲc | ŋk | ns | mb | nd | ɲɟ | ŋɡ | nr |
| /ʔ/ | ʔm | ʔn | ʔɲ | ʔŋ | ʔl | pp | tt | cc | kk | ss | ʔb | ʔd | ʔɟ | ʔɡ | ʔr |
Thegeminate cluster/rr/ is only found in root-internal position and cannot be accounted for by the above rules.
Sequences of like vowels are contracted to a single vowel; e.g.,sassa 'to wash' +-ang 'nominalizing suffix' >sassáng 'laundry',caʼdi 'small' +-i 'third person' >caʼdi 'it is small'.
The stress is generally placed on thepenultimate (second-last) syllable of a base word. In reduplicated words, secondary stress will be placed on the first element, as in the wordammèkang-mékang/amˌmekaŋˈmekaŋ/ 'to fish (casually)'.[31][33] Suffixes are generally counted as part of the phonological unit receiving stress, while enclitics are not counted (extrametrical). For example, the wordgássing 'strong', if the benefactive suffix-ang is added, becomesgassíngang 'stronger than' with stress on the penultimate syllable, but if given the first-person marker enclitic=aʼ, it becomesgássingaʼ 'I am strong', with stress on the antepenultimate syllable (third-last).[34]
Othermorphemes counted as part of the stress-bearing unit include the affixal clitic,[a] marking possession, as in the wordtedóng=ku (buffalo=1.POSS) 'my buffalo'.[36] Particularly for thedefinite marker≡a, this morpheme is counted as part of the stress-bearing unit only if the base word it attaches to ends in a vowel, as in the wordbatúa 'the stone'—compare with the stress pattern inkóngkonga 'the dog', where the base word ends in a consonant.[37][38] A word can have stress on the preantepenultimate (fourth-last) syllable if a two-syllable enclitic combination such as=mako (PFV=ma,2=ko) is appended; e.g.,náiʼmako 'go up!'[36] The stress position can also be influenced by the process of vocalic degemination, where identical vowels across morphemes merge into one. For example, the wordjappa 'walk', when the suffix -ang is added, becomesjappáng 'to walk with', with stress on the ultimate (last) syllable.[39]
The stress on base words with echo-VC always falls on the antepenultimate syllable; for example,lápisiʼ 'layer',bótoloʼ 'bottle',pásaraʼ 'market', andMangkásaraʼ 'Makassar', because syllables with VK-geminate are extrametrical.[29][30][28] However, the addition of suffixes-ang and-i will remove this epenthetic syllable and move the stress to the penultimate position, as in the wordlapísi 'to layer'. Adding the possessive clitic suffix also shifts the stress to the penultimate position but does not remove this epenthetic syllable, as in the wordbotolóʼna 'its bottle'. Meanwhile, the addition of the definite marker and enclitics neither remove nor alter the stress position of this syllable, as in the wordspásaraka 'that market' andappásarakaʼ 'I'm going to the market'.[26][40]
Personal pronouns in the Makassar language have three forms, namely:
The following table shows these three forms of pronouns along with possessive markers for each series.
| Free pronouns (PRO) | Proclitic (ERG) | Enclitic (ABS) | Possessive marker (POSS) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | (i)nakke | ku= | =aʼ | =ku |
| 1PL.INCL/2HON | (i)katte | ki= | =kiʼ | =ta |
| 1PL.EXCL | †(i)kambe | — | *=kang | †=mang |
| 2FAM | (i)kau | nu= | =ko | =nu |
| 3 | ia | na= | =i | =na |
The first person plural inclusive pronouns are also used to refer to the second person plural and serve as a form of respect for the second person singular. The first person plural pronoun seriesku= is commonly used to refer to the first person plural in modern Makassar; pronounskambe and possessive marker=mang are considered archaic, while the enclitic=kang can only appear in combination with clitic markers of modality and aspect, such as=pakang (IPFV=pa,1PL.EXCL=kang).[42] The plural meaning can be expressed more clearly by adding the wordngaseng 'all' after the free form, as inia–ngaseng 'they all' andikau–ngaseng 'you all',[43] or before the enclitic, as inngaseng=i 'they all'. However,ngaseng cannot be paired with proclitics.
Proclitic and enclitic forms are the most common pronominal forms used to refer to the person or object being addressed (see the#Basic Clauses section for examples of their use). Free forms are less frequently used; their use is generally limited to presentative clauses (clauses that state or introduce something, see example 1), for emphasis (2), inprepositionalphrases functioning as arguments or adjuncts (3), and as predicates (4).[41]
ia
=mo
=PFV
=i
=3
(a)njo
that
allo
day
maka-
rua
two
≡a
≡DEF
ia =mo =i (a)njo allo maka- rua ≡a
3PRO =PFV =3 that dayORD- two ≡DEF
'that was the second day.'[42]
lompo-
lompo
big
=i
=3
anaʼ
child
na
and
i-
nakke
tena
=pa
=IPF
ku=
tianang
pregnant
lompo- lompo =i anaʼ ≡na na i- nakke tena =pa ku= tianang
RDP- big =3 child ≡3.POSS and PERS-1PRO NEG =IPF 1= pregnant
'… his child is growing, and me, Iʼm not yet pregnant.'[44]
aN(N)-
pinawang
follow
=a'
=1
ri
katte
aN(N)- pinawang =a' ri katte
'Iʼm following you.'[44]
Nouns in Makassarese are a class of words that can function as arguments for a predicate, allowing them to be cross-referenced by pronominal clitics.[45] Nouns can also serve as the head of a noun phrase (including relative clauses). In possessive constructions, nouns can act as either the possessor or the possessed; an affixal clitic will be attached to the possessed noun phrase. The indefiniteness of a noun can be expressed by the affixal clitic≡a. Uninflected nouns can also function as predicates in a sentence. All of these main points are illustrated in the following example:[46]
anaʼ
child
=i
=3
karaeng
king
≡a
≡DEF
anaʼ ≡na =i karaeng ≡a
child ≡3.POSS =3 king ≡DEF
he is the son of the king.'[47]
In addition, nouns can also be specified by demonstratives, modified by adjectives, quantified by numerals, become complements in prepositional phrases, and become verbs meaning 'wear/use [the noun in question]' when affixed with the prefixaK-.[46]
Nouns that are usually affixed with the definite clitic≡a and possessive markers arecommon nouns.[48] On the other hand,proper nouns such as place names, personal names, and titles (excluding kinship terms) are usually not affixed with definiteness and possessive markers but can be paired with the personal prefixi- like pronouns.[49]
Some common nouns are generic nouns that often become the core of acompound word, such as the wordsjeʼneʼ 'water',tai 'excrement', andanaʼ 'child'.[50] Examples of compound words derived from these generic nouns arejeʼneʼ inung 'drinking water',tai bani 'wax,beeswax' (literal meaning: 'bee excrement'), andanaʼ baine 'daughter'.[49] Kinship terms that are commonly used as greetings are also classified as common nouns, such as the wordsmangge 'father',anrong 'mother', andsariʼbattang 'sibling'.[51] Another example is the worddaeng which is used as a polite greeting in general, or by a wife to her husband.
The other main noun group is temporal nouns, which usually appear after prepositions in adjunct constructions to express time.[50] Examples of temporal nouns are clock times (such astetteʼ lima '5.00 [five o'clock]'), estimated times based on divisions of the day (such asbariʼbasaʼ 'morning'), days of the week, as well as dates, months, and seasons.[52]
Derived nouns in Makassarese are formed through several productive morphological processes, such as reduplication and affixation withpa-,ka-, and-ang, either individually or in combination.[53] The following table illustrates some common noun formation processes in Makassarese:[54][55]
| Process | Productive meanings | Samples | Note | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| reduplication | diminution or imitation | tau 'people' → tau-tau 'statue, doll' | [56][57] | |
| suffixpa- | pa-NOMINAL/VERBAL ROOT | actor, creator, or user | jarang 'horse' → pajarang 'rider'; botoroʼ 'gamble' → pabotoroʼ 'gambler' | [58][59] |
| pa-VERB BASE[b] | instrument | akkutaʼnang 'ask' → pakkutaʼnang 'question'; anjoʼjoʼ 'point' → panjoʼjoʼ 'index finger, pointer' | [62][63] | |
| pa-DERIVED VERBAL BASES[c] | instrument | appakagassing 'fortifiying' → pappakagassing 'tonic, fortifying medicine or drink' | [62] | |
| pa>VERB BASE<ang | place or time | aʼjeʼneʼ 'bathe' → paʼjeʼnekang 'bathing place, bathtime'; angnganre 'eat' → pangnganreang 'plate' | [64] | |
| paK>ADJECTIVE<ang[d] | someone who is easilyADJ, inclined to beADJ | garring 'sick' → paʼgarringang 'sickly person' | [65] | |
| confixka>...<ang | ka>ADJECTIVE<ang | ADJ-ness | kodi 'bad' → kakodiang 'badness' | [66][67] |
| ka>REDUPLICATED ADJECTIVAL<ang | peak ofADJ | gassing 'strong' → kagassing-gassingang 'greatest strength'[e] | [69] | |
| ka>BASIC VERB<ang | state or process | battu 'come' → kabattuang 'arrival' | [67][70] | |
| suffix-ang | instrument | buleʼ 'carry on shoulders' → bulekang 'sedan chair' | [71][72] | |
There are some exceptions to the general patterns described above. For example, reduplication of the wordoloʼ 'worm' tooloʼ-oloʼ results in a broadening of meaning to 'animal'.[73] The affixation ofpa- to a verb base does not always indicate an instrument or tool, for examplepaʼmaiʼ 'breath, character, heart' (as in the phraselompo paʼmaiʼ 'big-hearted') which is derived from the wordaʼmaiʼ 'to breathe'.[74][75] The affixation ofpa>...<ang to the verb baseammanaʼ 'to give birth' results in the wordpammanakang meaning 'family', although it is possible that this word was originally a metaphor ('place to have children').[76]
The components of noun phrases in the Makassarese can be categorized into three groups, namely 1) head, 2) specifier, and 3) modifier.[77]
Modifying elements always follow the head noun-they may be of various types:[78]
In Makassarese, relative clauses are placed directly after the head noun without any special marker (unlike Indonesian, which requires a word like 'yang' before the relative clause). The verb within the relative clause is marked with the definite marker≡a.[82]
tau
person
battu
come
≡a
≡DEF
ri
Japáng
Japan
tau battu ≡a ri Japáng
person come ≡DEF PREP Japan
'the person who came from Japan.'[82]
In Makassarese intransitive clauses, the 'absolutive' enclitic (=ABS) is used to cross-reference the sole argument in the clause (S) if that argument is definite or salient according to the conversational context. This enclitic tends to be attached to the first constituent in a clause. TheaK- prefix is commonly used to form intransitive verbs, although some verbs liketinro 'sleep' do not require this prefix.[83]
aK-
jappa
walk
=i
=3
Balanda
Dutch
≡a
≡DEF
aK- jappa =i Balanda ≡a
'The Dutchman is walking.'[83]
Many other types of phrases may head intransitive clauses, for example nominals (13) and pronoun (example (4) above), adjectives (14), or a prepositional phrase (15):
bambang
hot
=i
=3
allo
day
≡a
≡DEF
bambang =i allo ≡a
hot =3 day ≡DEF
'This day is hot.'[84]
Verbs in transitive clauses are not affixed, but instead are marked with a pronominal proclitic indicating the A or actor and a pronominal enclitic indicating the P or undergoer.[84]
na=
kokkoʼ
bite
=aʼ
=1
miong
cat
na= kokkoʼ =aʼ miong ≡ku
3= bite =1 cat ≡1.POSS
'My cat bit me.'[84]
In addition to the personal pronoun clitics used to cross-reference arguments within a sentence, the Makassar language also possesses a series of clitics employed to mark grammatical meanings such astense, aspect, modality, andpolarity (affirmation and negation). The clitics belonging to this group are the procliticsla=FUT andta=NEG, and the enclitics=moPFV,=paIPF,=jaLIM, and=kaOR.[85] These types of clitics are generally placed before the pronominal clitics (if any), whether in initial or final position on the base word they attach to. The vowel sound in the aspect/modality enclitics is dropped if followed by the pronominal enclitics=aʼ and=i, with the exception of the enclitic=ka, which becomes=kai when paired with=i.[86] The following table shows the combinations between the aspect/modality and pronominal enclitics[87]:
| =aʼ 1 | =kiʼ 1PL.INCL/2HON | =kang 1PL.EXCL | =ko 2FAM | =i 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| =moPFV | =maʼ | =makiʼ | =makang | =mako | =mi |
| =paIPF | =paʼ | =pakiʼ | =pakang | =pako | =pi |
| =jaLIM | =jaʼ | =jakiʼ | =jakang | =jako | =ji |
| =kaOR | =kaʼ | =kakiʼ | =kakang | =kako | =kai |
The procliticta=, although the most basic negation morpheme in the Makassarese, is not the most commonly used negator. Negation constructions generally use a combination of words that have undergone grammaticalization, such astaena ('no,' 'not').
Meanwhile, the procliticla= can be used to express the future tense or the meaning of 'will,' as in the following example:
la=
mange
go
=aʼ
=1
ri
pasaraʼ
market
≡a
≡DEF
ammuko
tomorrow
la= mange =aʼ ri pasaraʼ ≡a ammuko
FUT= go =1 PREP market ≡DEF tomorrow
'I’ll go to the market tomorrow.'[88]
The procliticla= can also be found in questions, such as the expressionlakerekomae? orlakekomae? ('Where are you going?'). This is a common greeting in Makassarese.[88]
The use of the perfective clitic=mo together withla= indicates that the event referred to by both clitics will happen 'immediately'.[88]
la=
ku=
sare
give
=mo
=PFV
=ko
=2FAM
pa>
aK-
areng
name
<ang
<NR
la= ku= sare =mo =ko pa> aK- areng <ang
FUT= 1= give =PFV =2FAM NR>MV- name <NR
'I will give you a naming (right now).'[88]
The enclitic=mo itself fundamentally serves as a marker for the perfective aspect or the meaning of 'already/has/have done'.[89]
piraN-
how.many
bulang
month
=mo
=PFV
=i
=3
battang
belly
si-
one-
bulang
month
=mo
=PFV
=aʼ
=1
ta=
aK-
ciniʼ
see
ceraʼ
blood
piraN- bulang =mo =i battang ≡ta si- bulang =mo =aʼ ta= aK- ciniʼ ceraʼ
how.many month =PFV =3 belly ≡2HON.POSS one- month =PFV =1 NEG=MV- see blood
'How many months have you been pregnant? (lit: how many months your belly?) It’s already a month since I saw any blood.'[89]
This enclitic also carriesdeontic meaning (indicating necessity or certainty) and can be used in imperative constructions, as in example (9). In interrogative constructions, the addition of the enclitic=mo signals that the questioner desires a definite answer.[90]
kere
where
=mo
=PFV
=i
=3
mae
mae
pa>
amm-
antang
live
<ang
<NR
kere =mo =i mae pa> amm- antang <ang ≡nu
{where} =PFV =3 mae NR>MV- live <NR ≡2FAM.POSS
'Where exactly is your home?'[91]
The opposite of=mo is the imperfective enclitic=pa, which conveys the meaning of 'not yet finished' or 'still'.[91]
ingka
but
seʼre
one
=pa
=IPFV
=i
=3
ku=
boya
search
ingka seʼre =pa =i ku= boya
but one =IPFV =3 1= search
'But there's still one thing Iseek.'[91]
The meaning of 'only, just' (in the sense of 'no more than' or 'nothing other than') is conveyed by the limitative enclitic=ja. Example usage:[92]
manna
although
antu
that
lompo
big
lompo
big
bannang
thread
=ja
=LIM
=i
=3
manna antu lompo lompo bannang =ja =i
although that big big thread =LIM =3
'Even if that's thick, it's only a thick thread (ie. it may be big, but it's only big for a small thing).'[92]
The enclitic=ka has two functions. In question sentences, this enclitic is used to request certainty or clarify the opponent's statement, similar to aquestiontag in English.[93]
Another function of the enclitic=ka is to mark choice or possibility, for exampletedong=ka jarang=ka (buffalo=OR horse=OR) '[the choice is] between a buffalo or a horse'. A longer example of its usage can be seen in the following quote from the preface of the Gowa Chronicles:[94]
ka
punna
if
ta=
ni-
asseng
know
≡a
≡DEF
rua
two
=i
=3
kodi
bad
ki=
saʼring
feel
=ka
=OR
=i
=3
kale
self
karaeng
king
dudu
very
na
and
kana
word
=ka
=OR
tau
person
i
pantaraʼ
outside
≡a
≡DEF
tau
person
bawang
ordinary
dudu
very
ka punna ta= ni- asseng ≡a rua =i kodi ≡na ki= saʼring =ka =i kale ≡nta karaeng dudu na kana =ka tau i pantaraʼ ≡a tau bawang dudu
BCS if NEG= PASS- know ≡DEF two =3 bad ≡3.POSSHON= feel =OR =3 self ≡2HON.POSS king very and word =OR person PREP outside ≡DEF person ordinary very
'Because if it is not known, there are two dangers: either we will feel ourselves to be kings too, or outsiders will call us common people.'[94]
Although Makassarese is now often written inLatin script, Makassarese has been traditionally written withLontara script andMakasar script, which once was used also to write important documents in Bugis and Mandar, two related languages fromSulawesi. Further, Makassarese was written in the Serang script, a variant of the Arabic-derivedJawi script. Texts written in the Serang script are relatively rare, and mostly appear in connection with Islam-related topics. Parts of theMakassar Annals, the chronicles of the Gowa and Tallo' kingdoms, were also written using the Serang script.[22]
The current Latin-based forms:
| Majuscule forms (uppercase) | |||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | Ng[i] | Ny[i] | O | P | R | S | T | U | W | Y | (ʼ)[ii] |
| Minuscule forms (lowercase) | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| a | b | c | d | e | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | ng[i] | ny[i] | o | p | r | s | t | u | w | y | (ʼ)[ii] |
| IPA | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| a | b | c | d | e | ɡ | h | i | ɟ | k,ʔ[iii] | l | m | n | ŋ | ɲ | o | p | r | s | t | u | w | j | ʔ |
| u | c | ɟ | ŋ | ɲ | -ʔ | (stressed vowels) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matthes (1859) | oe | t͠j | d͠j | n͠g | n͠j | ◌́, ◌̉ | ◌̂ |
| Cense (1979) | u | tj | dj | ŋ | ñ | -ʼ | ◌̀ |
| Indonesian based (1975) | u | c | j | ng | ny | -k | (not written) |
| Locally preferred | u | c | j | ng | ny | -ʼ |
Makassarese was historically written usingMakasar script (also known as "Old Makassarese" or "Makassarese bird script" in English-language scholarly works).[95]In Makassarese the script is known asukiriʼ jangang-jangang orhuruf jangang-jangang ('bird letters'). It was used for official purposes in the kingdoms of Makasar in the 17th century but ceased to be used by the 19th century, being replaced byLontara script.
In spite of their quite distinctive appearance, both the Makasar and Lontara scripts are derived from the ancientBrahmi script ofIndia. Like other descendants of that script, each consonant has an inherent vowel "a", which is not marked. Other vowels can be indicated by addingdiacritics above, below, or on either side of each consonant.
| ka | ga | nga | pa | ba | ma | ta | da | na | ca | ja | nya | ya | ra | la | wa | sa | a | ha | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old Makassarese | 𑻠 | 𑻡 | 𑻢 | 𑻣 | 𑻤 | 𑻥 | 𑻦 | 𑻧 | 𑻨 | 𑻩 | 𑻪 | 𑻫 | 𑻬 | 𑻭 | 𑻮 | 𑻯 | 𑻰 | 𑻱 | - (𑻱[i]) |
| Lontara script | ᨀ | ᨁ | ᨂ | ᨄ | ᨅ | ᨆ | ᨈ | ᨉ | ᨊ | ᨌ | ᨍ | ᨎ | ᨐ | ᨑ | ᨒ | ᨓ | ᨔ | ᨕ | ᨖ |
| |||||||||||||||||||
Both scripts do not have avirama or other ways to write syllable codas in a consistent manner, even though codas occur regularly in Makassar. For example, in Makassar isbabaᨅᨅ which can correspond to six possible words:baba, babaʼ, baʼba, baʼbaʼ, bamba, andbambang.[96]
Given that Lontara script is also traditionallywritten without word breaks, a typical text often has many ambiguous portions which can often only be disambiguated through context. This ambiguity is analogous to the use of Arabic letters without vowel markers; readers whose native language use Arabic characters intuitively understand which vowels are appropriate in a given sentence so thatvowel markers are not needed in standard everyday texts.
Even so, sometimes even context is not sufficient. In order to read a text fluently, readers may need substantial prior knowledge of the language and contents of the text in question. As an illustration, Cummings and Jukes provide the following example to illustrate how the Lontara script can produce different meanings depending on how the reader cuts and fills in the ambiguous part:
| Lontara script | Possible reading | |
|---|---|---|
| Latin | Meaning | |
| ᨕᨅᨙᨈᨕᨗ[97] | aʼbétai | he won (intransitive) |
| ambetái | he beat... (transitive) | |
| ᨊᨀᨑᨙᨕᨗᨄᨙᨄᨙᨅᨒᨉᨈᨚᨀ[98] | nakanrei pepeʼ ballaʼ datoka | fire devouring a temple |
| nakanrei pepe' Balanda tokkaʼ | fire devouring a bald Hollander | |
| ᨄᨙᨄᨙ | pepe | mute |
| pepeʼ | fire | |
| pempeng | stuck together | |
| peppeʼ | hit | |
Without knowing the actual event to which the text may be referring, it can be impossible for first time readers to determine the "correct" reading of the above examples. Even the most proficient readers may need to pause and re-interpret what they have read as new context is revealed in later portions of the same text.[96] Due to this ambiguity, some writers such as Noorduyn labelled Lontara as adefective script.[99]
After Islam arrived in 1605, and with Malay traders using the Arabic-based Jawi script, Makassarese could also be written using Arabic letters. This was called 'serang' and was better at capturing the spoken language than the original Makassarese scripts because it could show consonants at the ends of syllables. But it wasn't widely used, with only a few surviving manuscripts. One key example is the diary of the Gowa and Tallo' courts, translated from serang into Dutch. However, Arabic script is commonly found in manuscripts to write Islamic names, dates, and religious ideas.[100]
| Sound | Isolated form | Final form | Medial form | Initial form | Name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| /c/ | چ | ـچ | ـچـ | چـ | ca |
| /ŋ/ | ڠ | ـڠ | ـڠـ | ڠـ | nga |
| /ɡ/ | ࢴ | ـࢴ | ـࢴـ | ࢴـ | gapu |
| /ɲ/ | ڽ | ـڽ | ـڽـ | ڽـ | nya |
| Sample text | |
|---|---|
| Old Makassar script | 𑻨𑻳𑻰𑻴𑻭𑻶𑻥𑻳𑻷𑻥𑻮𑻱𑻵𑻠𑻲𑻷𑻱𑻢𑻴𑻠𑻳𑻭𑻳𑻠𑻳𑻱𑻭𑻵𑻨𑻷𑻰𑻳𑻬𑻡𑻱𑻷𑻱𑻵𑻣𑻶𑻯𑻨𑻷𑻠𑻥𑻦𑻵𑻬𑻨𑻷𑻰𑻳𑻬𑻡𑻱𑻷𑻮𑻭𑻳𑻠𑻥𑻦𑻵𑻬𑻨𑻷 𑻨𑻲𑻱𑻵𑻭𑻥𑻶𑻷𑻥𑻮𑻱𑻵𑻠𑻲𑻷𑻥𑻢𑻵𑻷𑻭𑻳𑻥𑻮𑻠𑻴𑻮𑻴𑻥𑻱𑻴𑻦𑻳𑻷 |
| Lontara script | ᨊᨗᨔᨘᨑᨚᨆᨗ᨞ᨆᨒᨕᨙᨀᨀ᨞ᨕᨂᨘᨀᨗᨑᨗᨀᨗᨕᨑᨙᨊ᨞ᨔᨗᨐᨁᨕ᨞ᨕᨙᨄᨚᨓᨊ᨞ᨀᨆᨈᨙᨐᨊ᨞ᨔᨗᨐᨁᨕ᨞ᨒᨑᨗᨀᨆᨈᨙᨐᨊ᨞ ᨊᨊᨕᨙᨑᨆᨚ᨞ᨆᨒᨕᨙᨀᨀ᨞ᨆᨂᨙ᨞ᨑᨗᨆᨒᨀᨘᨒᨘᨆᨕᨘᨈᨗ᨞ |
| Serang script | نِسُوْرُمِ مَلَائِكَكَةْ أَڠُّكِرِيْرِكِ أَرِيِنَّ سِيَࢴَاءً إِمْفُوَانَّ كَمَتِيَانَّ سِيَࢴَاءً لَنْرِ كَمَتِيَانَّ نَنَئِيْرَمَّ مَلَائِكَكَة مَاڠِيْ رِ مَلَكُ الْمَوْتِ |
| Latin Script | Nisuromi malaekaka anngukiriki arenna, siagáng empoanna kamateanna, siagáng lanri kamateanna, na naerammo malaekaka mange ri Malakulmauti. |
| Translation | Themalāʾikah were ordered to record his name, the circumstances of his death, and the cause of his death, then themalāʾikah took him toMalak al-Mawt. |
Some common words and phrases in the Makassarese language, transcribed in the Latin script, are as follows (⟨ʼ⟩ represents the glottal stop).
| Lontara | Romanized | Indonesian | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| ᨈᨕᨘ | tau | orang | people |
| ᨄᨎᨗᨀᨗ | paʼnyiki | kelelawar | bat |
| ᨕᨑᨙ | areng | nama | name |
| ᨕᨊ | anaʼ | anak | child |
| ᨔᨙᨑᨙ᨞ ᨑᨘᨓ᨞ ᨈᨒᨘ᨞ ᨕᨄ᨞ ᨒᨗᨆ᨞ | seʼre,rua,tallu,appaʼ,lima | satu, dua, tiga, empat, lima | one, two, three, four, five |
| ᨅᨕᨗᨊᨙ | baine | perempuan,istri | female, woman, wife |
| ᨅᨘᨑᨊᨙ | buraʼne | lelaki,suami | male, man, husband |
| ᨈᨅᨙ | tabeʼ | permisi,maaf | excuse me, sorry |
| ᨈᨕᨙᨊ,ᨈᨙᨊ,ᨈᨑᨙ | taena,tena,tanreʼ | tiada | none, nothing |
| ᨒᨙᨅ | leʼbaʼ | telah | already |
| ᨔᨒᨆᨀᨗ ᨅᨈᨘ ᨆᨕᨙ | salamakkiʼ battu mae | selamat datang | welcome |
| ᨕᨄ ᨕᨈᨘ ᨆᨕᨙ ᨀᨅᨑ? | apa antu mae kabaraʼ? | apa kabar? | how are you? |
| ᨅᨍᨗᨅᨍᨗᨍᨗ | bajiʼ-bajiʼji | baik-baik saja | I am fine |
| ᨊᨕᨗ ᨕᨑᨙᨊᨘ? | nai arenta? | siapa namamu? | what's your name? |
| ᨒᨀᨙᨑᨙᨀᨗ ᨆᨕᨙ? ᨒᨀᨙᨀᨗ ᨆᨕᨙ? ᨒᨀᨙᨆᨕᨗᨀᨗ? | lakereki mae?, lakekimae?, lakemaeki? | kamu mau ke mana? | where are you going? |
| ᨀᨙᨑᨙᨀᨗ ᨆᨕᨙ ᨕᨆᨈ | kerekiʼ mae ammantang? | kamu tinggal di mana? | where do you live? |
| ᨔᨗᨐᨄᨆᨗ ᨕᨘᨆᨘᨑᨘᨈ? | siapami umuruʼta? | berapa usiamu? | how old are you? |
| ᨔᨒᨆᨀᨗ ᨑᨗ ᨆᨂᨙᨕᨈᨙ | salamakkiʼ ri mangeanta | selamat sampai tujuan | have a safe trip |
| ᨔᨒᨆᨀᨗ ᨑᨗ ᨒᨄᨈ | salamakkiʼ ri lampanta | selamat tinggal | goodbye |
| ᨅᨈᨘ ᨑᨗ ᨀᨈᨙ | battu ri katte | tergantung padamu | it depends on you |
ka>
gassing-
gassing
strong
<ang
<NR
=mo
=PFV
=i
=3
ka> gassing- gassing <ang ≡na =mo =i
NR>RDP- strong <NR ≡3.POSS =PFV =3
'heʼs already at the peak of his strength'
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Authority control databases: National |
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