Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin (Persian:ابوالقاسم محمود بن سبکتگین,romanized: Abu al-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sabuktigīn; 2 October 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known asMahmud of Ghazni orMahmud Ghaznavi (محمود غزنوی),[11] wasSultan of theGhaznavid Empire, ruling from 998 to 1030. During his reign and in medieval sources, he is usually known by hishonorific titleYamin al-Dawla (یمین الدوله,lit.'Right Handof the State'). At the time of his death, his kingdom had been transformed into an extensive military empire, which extended from present-day northwesternIran proper to thePunjab in theIndian subcontinent,Khwarazm inTransoxiana, andMakran.
HighlyPersianized,[12] Mahmud continued the bureaucratic, political, and cultural customs of his predecessors, theSamanids. He established the ground for a futurePersianate state inPunjab, particularly centered onLahore, a city he conquered.[13] His capital ofGhazni evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual centre in the Islamic world, almost rivalling the important city ofBaghdad. The capital appealed to many prominent figures, such asal-Biruni andFerdowsi.[14]
Mahmud ascended the throne at the age of 27[15] upon his father's death, albeit after a brief war of succession with his brotherIsmail. He was the first ruler to hold the titleSultan ("authority"), signifying the extent of his power while at the same time preserving an ideological link to thesuzerainty of theAbbasid Caliphs. During his rule, he invaded India 17 times and plundered the richest cities and temple towns, such asMathura andSomnath, and used the booty to build his capital in Ghazni.[16][17]
Mahmud was born in the town ofGhazni in the region ofZabulistan (in present-dayAfghanistan) on 2 October 971.[18] His father,Sabuktigin, was aTurkic slave commander who laid foundations to the Ghaznavid dynasty in Ghazni in 977, which he ruled as a subordinate of theSamanids, who ruledKhorasan andTransoxiana. Mahmud's mother was a local woman of possible Iranian descent from a landowning aristocrat family in the region of Zabulistan,[19][20] and he is therefore known in some sources asMahmud-i Zavuli ("Mahmud from Zabulistan").[21] Not much about Mahmud's early life is known, other than that he was a school-mate and foster brother ofAhmad Maymandi, a Persian native of Zabulistan.[22]
Originally Sultan Mahmud was a follower of theHanafi school of law, but shortly after his accession to the throne he showed inclination towards theKarramite sect and ultimately changed over to theShafi'i school of law.[23] Although early in his reign Sultan Mahmud showed sympathies with theKarramiyya sect—evidenced by reports that he “would get angry for the Karramiyya” (yaghḍabu lil-Karramiyya)[24][failed verification] Following Mahmud's death Ghaznavid poetFarrukhi said the heretics can now sleep peacefully:
"Alas and alack, the Qarmatiyan can now rejoice! They will be secure against death by stoning or the gallows."[25]
Afterward, Mahmud came under the influence of the renowned scholar Abū Bakr ʿAbdallāh ibn Aḥmad al-Qaffāl al-Marwazī,Abū Bakr al-Qaffāl al-Marwazī a devout follower of theAshʿarī theological school and theShafi'imadhhab.[26] This shift reflected a broader move within the Ghaznavid court to align withSunni orthodoxy, distancing itself from anthropomorphic sects like theKarramiyya and fromIsma'ili theology. Mahmud's theological stance is described byAl-Dhahabi as that of anAthari in creed andShafi‘i in jurisprudence. He mentioned Mahmud as someone who inclined towards the Athar, quote:
"The Sultan was inclined towards the Athar, except that he was from the Karamiyya."[27]
This quotation reflects his earlier theological position on creed, prior to his later shift towards theShāfiʿīAtharī view. Following his shift in creed, he was challenged by theAshʿarī theologianIbn Furak, who contended that describing God as ‘above’ implied also describing Him as ‘below. He answered him by saying, quote:
Abu ʿAlī ibn al-Bannāʾ said: ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn al-Akbarī narrated that he heard Abū Masʿūd Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Bajalī say: Ibn Fawrak entered upon Sultan Maḥmūd and said: "It is not permissible to describe God as being above, because that would necessarily entail describing Him as being below. Whoever it is permissible for Him to have an above, it is permissible for Him to have a below." The Sultan replied: "I did not describe Him so that it would be necessary for me to do so. Rather, He described Himself."[28]
It is reported from Shaykh al-IslāmIbn Taymiyyah in his book Bayān Talbīs al-Jahmiyyah that Mahmud used to curse the People ofInnovation (Ahl al-Bid'ah), and that among them were the Ash'ariyyah. Quote:
“Sultan Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin relied on something similar to this in his kingdom, and he added to it by ordering the people of heresy to be cursed from the pulpits: so the Jahmites were cursed, and the Rafidis and the Haruriyya and the Mu'tazila and the Qadarites, and also the Ash'ariyya were cursed”[29]
He knewQuran by heart and was familiar withMuslim law and tradition.[30] According to Ghaznavid authorAbu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi and poetFarrukhi Sistani, the sultan was punctilious in the performance of his religious duties and offered theregular prayers and read theQuran. In the month Ramadan, 2.5%Zakat was collected and spent on the poor.[31] Mahmud did not tolerate any deviation in Muslim subjects. Censorship was applied and an officer was appointed to punish heresy or delinquency. The followers of the Isma'ili ShiaQaramatians andBatini sects were suppressed in the empire. They were captured and imprisoned if they did not recant they were often executed.[32]
“Sultan Mahmud, may God forgive his crimes did not allow half hearted religious men and heretics to enter his court, nay not even his kingdom, so that other people might not be misled by seeing such persons in the form of thedervish, and they themselves might have no power to mislead others.”[33]
Mahmud married the daughter ofAbu'l Haret Ahmad,[34] and they had twin sons,Mohammad andMa'sud, who succeeded him one after the other; his grandson by Mas'ud,Maw'dud Ghaznavi, also later became ruler of the empire. In 999, Mahmud marriedKara-khanid rulerNasr Illig Khan's daughter. In December 999, Mahmud sent his representatives toUzgand, capital of Nasr Illig to escort Khan's daughter to Mahmud's palace.[35]
According toMirat-i-Masudi ("Mirror of Masud"), a Persian-language hagiography written by Abdur Rahman Chishti in the 1620s, Mahmud's sister, Sitr-e-Mu'alla, was purportedly married to Dawood bin Ataullah Alavi, also known asGazi Saiyyed Salar Sahu, whose son wasGhazi Saiyyad Salar Masud.[36] Mahmud's companion was aGeorgian slave,Malik Ayaz, about whom poems and stories have been told.[37]
In 988, Mahmud who was only fifteen years of age, took a prominent part in theFirst Battle of Laghman between his father and Jayapala.
In 994 AD, he joined his fatherSabuktigin in the capture ofKhorasan from the rebel Fa'iq. Sabuktigin recognised his services and bestowed him the title ofSaifu'd-Dawlah (Sword of the State) and appointed him to the command of the troops of Khurasan in place of Abu 'Ali Simjuri.
In April, 995 Abu Ali and Fa'iq attacked him at Nishapur, defeated his army captured his elephants and treasure. In July, Sabuktigin hastened to Mahmud's help. Sabuktigin engaged in battle defeating the allied army. Many officers of Abu Ali was captured and exchanged them for the elephants.
In 996 AD, when Ilig Khan ofKara-Khanid Khanate advanced on Bukhara, 'Abdu'llah, the wazir ofAmir Nuh offended Sabuktigin to cede some portion of his empire. Sabuktigin sent Mahmud with 20,000 troops to replace him. During his absence, Abu'l-Qasim Simjuri brother of Abu Ali Simjuri seized Nishapur. Mahmud, with his uncle Bughrajuq, retook it without a fight. He then reconsolidated power in Khurasan. After Subuktigin's death Mahmud returned to Ghazni to contest the throne with his brotherIsmail.[39]
Sabuktigin died in August 997, and was succeeded by his sonIsmail as the ruler of theGhaznavid dynasty. The reason behind Sabuktigin's choice to appoint Ismail as heir over the more experienced and older Mahmud is uncertain. It may have been due to Ismail's mother being the daughter of Sabuktigin's old master,Alptigin.[40] Mahmud shortly revolted, and with the help of his other brother, Abu'l-Muzaffar, the governor ofBust, he defeated Ismail the following year at thebattle of Ghazni and gained control over the Ghaznavid kingdom.[41] That year, in 998, Mahmud then traveled toBalkh and paid homage to AmirAbu'l-Harith Mansur b. Nur II.[42] He then appointedAbu'l-Hasan Isfaraini as hisvizier,[43] and then set out west from Ghazni to take theKandahar region followed by Bust (NowLashkar Gah in southwesternAfghanistan), which he transformed to a militarised city.[citation needed]
The Ghaznavids originally vassal under theSamanids in 998 AD.[44]
After accession to the throne, the Samanid AmirMansur II confirmed Mahmud the possession of Ghazni, Bust, easternKhurasanian towns ofBalkh,Tirmidh, andHerat but he was eager to recover Khorasan.[45] In 998 AD, Mahmud sought to expand Ghaznavid control into Khorasan. After failing to secure Khorasan through negotiations withSamanid Amir Mansur II, Mahmud invaded Nishapur in 999 AD. On 2 February 999, Mansur was assassinated by Samanid nobleman Begtuzun and Fa’iq, who placed his brotherAbd al-Malik II to the throne. Mahmud took up the cause of the assassination of Mansur and advanced against the Samanids. A brief peace agreement was concluded ensuring Mahmud's control of Herat and Balkh. But the conflict resumed when Dara bin Qabus, who did not agree to the treaty attacked Mahmud’s army. Mahmud assembled his army near Merv. Ghaznavid forces, led by Mahmud, his brother Abu'l Muzaffar Nasr supported by cavalry and elephants, defeated the Samanid army of Abd al-Malik, Abu'l Qasim, Begtuzun, Fa'iq. The Samanid dynasty collapsed soon after with Fa'iq's death and theKara-Khanid invasion of Bukhara, capturing Abd al-Malik in 999.[46]
Mahmud became a fully independent sovereign, with formal acknowledgement of theAbbasid caliph's spiritual overlordship. From 999 AD and onwards coins were issued of the titleWali Amir al-Mu'minin "Friend of the Commander of the Faithful".[47]
Khalaf ibn Ahmad (r. 963–1002),Saffarid ruler ofSistan had good relation with Sabuktigin, often helped him with military aid. After Sabuktigin's death and succession dispute between Mahmud and his brother Ismail, Khalaf took the opportunity and capturedPushang andKuhistan, killing Mahmud's uncle Bughrajuq. Following Mahmud's consolidation of power in Ghaznavid territories, Khalaf was forced to acknowledge Ghaznavid suzerainty in 1000 AD. Shortly after Khalaf's assassination of his son Tahir led discontentment among some of the Saffarid generals who invited Mahmud to rule over Sistan.[49] In 1002, Mahmud invadedSistan and dethronedKhalaf ibn Ahmad, ending theSaffarid dynasty. In 1003, a rebellion was suppressed in Sistan. During the rebellion the Hindu troops in Ghaznavid army sacked theFriday mosque ofZaranj, massacring Muslims andChristians in theirchurch. Sistan was left in charge of Mahmud's uncle Abu'l Muzaffar Nasr.[50]
During Mahmud's period, Multan was ruled by theQaramatian rulerFateh Daud. In March–April 1006, left Ghazni and marched to Multan crossing near Peshawar. There he was checked by Anandapal who was defeated and fled. He then laid siege on Multan and captured within a week. Mahmud began to reduce parts of Multan and Bhatiya but received the news of Kara-Khanid invasion of Khorasan. He left Sukhpal, alias Nawasa Shah in charge of Multan before proceeding towards Khorasan. In December 1007, Sukhpal taking advantage of the conflict in Khorasan revolted.[51] Mahmud marched for Multan but before any action was taken Sukhpal was captured by the frontier amirs and brought him captive to the royal camp.[52] In October 1010, Mahmud launched a decisive expedition and successfully subdued Multan.[51]
In 1006 AD, The Kara-Khanid under Ilig Nasr Khan and Qadir Khan invaded Khorasan to annex it from the Ghaznavid Empire. In 1006, Ilig Khan’s forces briefly capturedBalkh andHerat, but Sultan Mahmud swiftly expelled them by mid-1006. In 1008, Ilig Khan and Qadir Khan led a 50,000-strong army across theOxus river but were decisively defeated by Mahmud’s forces, supported by elephants, at the Battle of Katar on 5 January 1008. The Kara-Khanids fled, suffering heavy losses, securing Ghaznavid control over Khorasan.[53]
Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute (Majmu al-Tawarikh, byHafiz-i Abru, Herat, 1425).[54][55]Captured IndianRaja brought to Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Folio fromMajmu al-Tavarikh, byHafiz-i Abru, Herat, 1425.
Jayapala, the Hindu Shahi ruler, attempted to exact revenge for an earlier military defeat at the hands of Sabuktigin, who had controlled Ghazni in the late 980s and had cost Jayapala extensive territory. He invaded Ghazni but was defeated. After Sabuktigin's death in 997 Mahmud succeeded his father. He first invaded modern day parts of Pakistan and then India. On 28November 1001, his army fought and defeated the army ofRaja Jayapala of theKabul Shahis at theBattle of Peshawar. He captured, and later released theHindu Shahi rulerJayapala, who had moved his capital toPeshawar. Jayapala immolated himself and was succeeded by his sonAnandapala who continued the struggle. In 1005 Mahmudinvaded Bhatia, andMultan in 1006, at which time Anandapala's army attacked him. The following year Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukhapala, ruler ofBathinda (who had become ruler by rebelling against the Shahi kingdom). In 1008–1009, Mahmud defeated the allied army ofUjjain,Delhi,Kalinjar,Kannauj,Ajmer and Hindu Shahis in theBattle of Chach. In 1013, during Mahmud's eighth expedition into eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Shahi kingdom (which was then under Trilochanapala, son of Anandapala) was overthrown.[56] Mahmud then set out on regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands ofHinduvassals andannexing only thePunjab region.[57] He also vowed to raid and loot the wealthy region of north-western India every year.[58]
In 1014 Mahmud led an expedition toThanesar. The next year he unsuccessfully attackedKashmir. The ruler of KashmirSangramaraja had been an ally of theHindu Shahis against the Ghaznavids, and Mahmud wanted retribution.[59][60] Antagonized by Sangramaraja's having helped Trilochanapala, Mahmud invaded Kashmir. He advanced along theTohi river valley, planning to enter Kashmir through theTosamaidan pass. However, his advanced was checked by the strong fort of Loharkot. After having besieged the fort for a month, Mahmud abandoned the siege and retreated, losing many of his troops on his way and almost losing his own life as well. In 1021, Mahmud again attempted to invade Kashmir, but was again not able to advance beyond the Loharkot fort. After the two failed invasion attempts, he did not attempt to invade Kashmir again.[59][60][61]
In 1018 Mahmud attackedMathura and defeated a coalition of rulers there while also killing a ruler called Chandrapala. The city of Mathura was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed".[62][63] In particular, Al-utbi mentioned in his workTarikh-e-yamini, that Mahmud Ghaznavi destroyed a "great and magnificent temple" in Mathura.[64] According toFirishta, writing a "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India, and was consecrated toVāsudeva-Krishna. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down.[65] TheArt of Mathura fell into decline thereafter.[66]
In 1021 Mahmud supported theKannauj king againstChandela Ganda, who was defeated. That same year Shahi Trilochanapala was killed at Rahib and his son Bhimapala succeeded him.Lahore was annexed by Mahmud. Mahmud besiegedGwalior in 1023, where he was given tribute. Mahmud attackedSomnath in 1025, and its rulerBhima I fled. The next year, he captured Somnath and marched toKutch againstBhima I. That same year Mahmud also attacked the Jats of Jud and defeated them.[67] Mahmud's desecration of the Somnath temple in Gujarat in 1024 AD motivatedRajput kingBhoja to lead an army against him, however afterSomnath raid, Mahmud chose a more dangerous route via Sindh, to avoid facing the invading powerful armies of Bhoja, he passed through a desert, where the scarcity of food and water killed a large number of his soldiers and animals, Kitabh Zainu'l Akhbar (c. 1048 CE) by 'Abd al-Hayy Gardizi, Tabaqat-i-Akbari byNizamuddin Ahmad and Firishta's writings also mention this incident.[68][69]
The Indian kingdoms ofNagarkot,Thanesar,Kannauj, andGwalior were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu,Jain, andBuddhist kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to neglect making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks. Since Mahmud never kept a permanent presence in the north-western subcontinent, he engaged in a policy of destroying Hindu temples and monuments to crush any move by the Hindus to attack the empire;Nagarkot,Thanesar,Mathura,Kannauj,Kalinjar (1023)[70] He raided India inGurjara-Pratihara territory which includedSomnath,Mathura andKannauj.[71] In 1026 AD,Jats inflicted heavy losses on the army of Mahmud while it was on its way from Somnath toMultan. In 1027, he launched a punitiveexpedition against the Jats, using 1,400 spiked boats to defeat their 4,000 vessels near Multan, killing or drowning most Jats and enslaving their families.[72][73] Indian historian, Kishori Saran Lal, estimates Mahmud's invasions into India caused a population loss of 2 million people killed and enslaved.[74]
Following the death of Sabuktigin in 997,Muhammad ibn Suri ofGhur adopted a hostile policy toward the Ghaznavids, withholding tribute and harassing their interests. In 1011, Sultan Mahmud led an expedition into eastern Ghur. The advance guard underAltuntash and Arslan Jadhib suffered an initial repulse, but Mahmud reinforced them and defeated the Ghurids. Muhammad ibn Suri and his son Shith were captured;Abu Ali, another son of ibn Suri, was installed as vassal ruler inMandesh. In 1015, Mahmud campaigned in western Ghur, targeting Khwabin near Bust andZamindawar. The defenders in a fortress surrendered after their leader Muqaddam was killed by an arrow shot by Mas'ud.[75] In September 1020, Mas'ud led an expedition to subjugate north-western Ghur. He was joined by local chieftains Abul Hasan Khalaf and Sherwan. Mas'ud captured forts and subjugated various chiefs. These campaigns brought most of Ghur except possibly its innermost parts under Ghaznavid control.[76]
The kingdom ofQusdar, situated roughly to the north-eastern half of modernBalochistan.[77] Qusdar became dependency of Ghazni during the first years of Sabuktigin's reign.[78] During 1010–1011 CE, its ruler adopted a hostile attitude at the instigation of Ilig Khan and withheld the annual tribute. Sultan Mahmud marched against him in December 1011 AD and laid siege to Qusdar. The ruler offered submission and, promised annual tribute. The Sultan accepted these terms, allowed the ruler to retain his kingdom as a feudatory chieftain, and returned to Ghazni.[77]
TheFarighunid dynasty ruledGuzgan from before the 10th century until the early 11th century. The Ghaznavids and Farighunids started as allies around 995 AD with joint campaigns in Khorasan. A double marriage tied the two dynasties. Mahmud married a Farighunid princess, and his sister married a Farighunid prince. Following Mahmud's succession to the throne, the Farighunids became loyal Ghaznavid vassals, fighting in Mahmud’s major battles. After the last Farighunid rulerAbu'l-Nasr Muhammad died in 1010–1011 CE, Sultan Mahmud annexed Guzgan directly into the Ghaznavid empire, appointed his own sonMuhammad as governor, therefore ending the Farighunid dynasty.[79]
In May 999, following his conquest of Khorasan from the Samanid ruler'Abd al-Malik II, Mahmud dispatchedal-Utbi to the ruler ofGharchistan, Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Asad ash-Shar to acknowledge Mahmud as the overlord. The Shar agreed, submitting as a vassal and replacing the Samanid amir's name with Mahmud's in thekhutbah. Later, the Shar's son and successor,Shah Muhammad ibn Abi Nasr Muhammad, provoked Mahmud by refusing to join a military expedition and responding arrogantly when summoned to account for his actions. In response, Mahmud ordered his generalsAltuntash, Arslan Jadhib, and Abu'l-Hasan al-Mani'i, the governor ofMarv al-Rudh to invade Gharchistan in 1012. Despite the region's rugged terrain, the Ghaznavid forces advanced to the capital, Afshin situated fifty miles above Marv al-Rudh. The elder Shar, Abu Nasr Muhammad, submitted peacefully and received honourable treatment. However, Shah Muhammad resisted, retreating to a nearly inaccessible hill fortress. The Ghaznavids besieged the stronghold, breaching its outer walls with battering rams. After fierce defence, thegarrison surrendered, and Shah Muhammad was captured along with many officers. He was imprisoned and died in captivity a few years later. His vizier was tortured to reveal hidden treasures. The kingdom of Gharchistan was fully annexed to the Ghaznavid Empire in 1012 and placed under the administration of Abu'l-Hasan al-Mani'i.[80]
In 1017 AD, Mahmud resolved to conquerKhwarazm which was under theMa'munids.Ma'mun I ibn Muhammad annexed Khwarazm after defeating Afrighid ShahAbu 'Abdallah Muhammad in 995 AD. After Ma'mun's assassination in 997 AD, his sonAbu al-Hasan Ali ruled until 1009 AD, followed by his brotherAbu'l-Abbas Ma'mun. He faced pressure to acknowledge Mahmud’s suzerainty, leading to his submission by reading thekhutbah in Mahmud’s name. This sparked a mutiny, culminating in his assassination in March 1017 AD by rebels led by Alptigin, who installed Abul-Abbas’s young son as ruler. Sultan Mahmud, enraged, invaded Khwarazm, defeated the rebels on 3 July 1017, and capturedGurganj, executing Alptigin and other regicides.[81]
Sultan Mahmud upon learning that the valleys of the Nur and Qirat rivers,[a] were inhabited by communities that practised lion worship ("lion" likely referred to an epithet ofBuddha,Buddhism being the prevailing religion of the region), decided to conquer the region and promote the adoption of Islam. In May–June 1020 AD, Mahmud led his expedition. The ruler of the Qirat valley promptly submitted, converted to Islam along with many of his subjects, and was honourably received. Mahmud confirmed him as a vassal ruler over his territory. The inhabitants of the Nur valley, however, resisted. Mahmud sent his chamberlain, 'Ali ibn Il-Arslan al-Qarib, who subdued them and installed a garrison under 'Ali ibn Qadr-i-Rajuq to secure the region. Following the campaign, the sultan appointed preachers to instruct the new converts in the fundamentals of Islam before returning to Ghazni.[82]
In 1012, Mahmud secured dominance overZiyarids in Northern Persia.[83] In 1029 AD,Daylamite troops threatened the weak rulerMajd al-Dawla, who sought help from Sultan Mahmud. Mahmud taking the opportunity sent 8,000 cavalry to capture Majd al-Dawla, while he marched toJurjan to preventSeljuk interference. In May, Ghaznavids capturedRay and put Majd al-Dawla under surveillance. On 26 May 1029, Mahmud entered Ray without resistance, seizing significant wealth. Majd al-Dawla was imprisoned and sent to India. Mahmud ordered Mas'ud to lead campaign against the remaining ofBuyid territories. Mas'ud went against the Kakuyids ofHamadan andIsfahan. He first captured Hamadan and then advanced to Isfahan, which was seized in January 1030.[84] The Ghaznavids then subjugated the neighbouring kingdoms inAzerbaijan, and Northern Iran withRawadids andSallarids paying tribute.[85][86]
Ruins of theSomnath temple in the 19th century. Photograph by Henry Cousens
In 1025 Mahmud raidedGujarat, plundering theSomnath temple and breaking itsjyotirlinga. He took away booty of 2 million dinars. The conquest of Somnath was followed by a punitive invasion ofAnhilwara.[87][88][89] Some historians claim that there are records of pilgrimages to the temple in 1038 that do not mention damage to the temple.[90] However, powerful legends with intricate detail had developed regarding Mahmud's raid in the Turko-Persian literature,[91] which "electrified" the Muslim world according to scholarMeenakshi Jain.[92]
Historians including Thapar, Eaton, and A. K. Majumdar have questioned the iconoclastic historiography of this incident. Thapar quoted Majumdar (1956):
But, as is well known, Hindu sources do not give any information regarding the raids of Sultan Mahmud, so that what follows is based solely on the testimony of Muslim authors.[93]
Thapar also argued against the prevalent narrative:
Yet in a curiously contradictory manner, the Turko-Persian narratives were accepted as historically valid and even their internal contradictions were not given much attention, largely because they approximated more closely to the current European sense of history than did the other sources.[94]
Exterior of the tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni, painted by James Atkinsonc. 1840
A painting of the inside of the mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, in 1839–40.
Sultan Mahmud had contractedmalaria during his expedition against Jats in 1027 AD which was his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis. For two years he suffered from this disease. In spite of the warnings of his physicians he carried his daily routine and engaged in court activities.[96]
After chasing theSeljuks out of Khorasan andcampaign in Rey, he spent the summer of 1029 in Khorasan following winter in Balkh. The climate of Balkh was unsuitable for him therefore he returned back to Ghazni about 22 April 1030 AD.[97]
On Thursday, 30 April, after resting a week in the capital Ghazni, Mahmud died at 5 o'clock, at the age of 58 years. He was buried at the same evening at the time of Isha prayer in the Firuzi garden his favourite pleasure resort.[98] Hismausoleum is located in the village of Rawza (Rawdza), 4 kilometres northeast ofGhazni,Afghanistan.[99][100][101]
994: Gains the title of Saifu'd-Dawlah and becomes Governor of Khorasan under service to NuhII of the Samanid Empire in civil strife
995: The Samanid rebels Fa'iq (leader of a court faction that had defeated Alptigin's nomination for Emir) and Abu Ali Simjuri expel Mahmud fromNishapur. Mahmud and Sabuktigin defeat Samanid rebels atTus.[39]
996: Mahmud deposed Amir Nuh's wazir Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Uzair at Balkh. Abu Ali Simjuri and Faiq recaptured Khorasan. However evacuated after Mahmud and his uncle Bughrajuq's approach.[39]
999: Gained Balkh, Herat, Tirmidh, Bust from the Samanids.[45] Conquest of Khorasan from the Samanids. Mahmud recognised as the overlord ofGharchistan.[46]
1005–6: Fateh Daud, the Ismaili ruler of Multan[103] revolts and enlists the aid ofAnandapala. Mahmud massacres the Ismailis[104][105] of Multan in the course of his conquest. Anandapala is defeated at Peshawar and pursued to Sodra (Wazirabad). Defends Balkh and Khorasan against Nasr I of the Kara-Khanid Khanate and recaptures Nishapur fromIsma'il Muntasir of the late Samanids.
1011: Invasion of Ghor.Amir Suri Ghor imprisoned. Rebellion of the ruler ofQusdar but defeated and submission of its ruler.[108] Incorporation ofGuzgan in 1010–1011 AD.[79]
1012: IncorporationGharchistan and deposition of its rulerAbu Nasr Muhammad.[80] Demands and receives remainder of the province of Khorasan from the Abbasid Caliph. Then demandsSamarkand as well but is rebuffed.
1015–16: Mahmud advanced against Balkh.[110] Mahmud's army sacks Lahore, but his expedition toKashmir fails, due to inclement weather.[111]
1017: Kannauj,Meerut, and Muhavun on theYamuna, Mathura and various other regions along the route. While moving through Kashmir he levies troops from vassal Prince for his onward march; Kannauj and Meerut submit without battle.[citation needed]Khwarazm conquered and placed underAltuntash.[81]
1020: Subjugation of the valleys of Nur and Qirat river in Kafiristan.[82]
1021:Kalinjar attacksKannauj: he marches to their aid and finds the last Shahi King, Trilochanpaala, encamped as well. No battle, the opponents leave their baggage trains and withdraw from the field. Also fails to take the fort of Lokote again. TakesLahore on his return. Trilochanpala flees toAjmer. First Muslim governors appointed east of theIndus River.
1023: Lahore. He forces Kalinjar andGwalior to submit and pay tribute.[113] Trilochanpala, the grandson of Jayapala, is assassinated by his own troops. Official annexation ofPunjab by Ghazni. Also fails to take the Lohara fort on the western border of Kashmir for the second time.
1024:Ajmer, Nehrwala,Kathiawar: This raid is his last major campaign. The concentration of wealth atSomnath was renowned, and consequently it became an attractive target for Mahmud, as it had previously deterred most invaders. Thetemple andcitadel are sacked, and most of its defenders massacred.
1025–26:Somnath: Mahmud sacks the temple and is reported to have personally hammered the temple's gildedLingam to pieces, and the stone fragments are carted back to Ghazni, where they are incorporated into the steps of the city's newJama Masjid (FridayMosque) in 1026. He places a new king on the throne inGujarat as a tributary. His return detours across theThar Desert to avoid the armies ofAjmer and other allies on his return.
1027: Defeats the fleet of Jats in Indus River to avenge the "heavy losses" suffered by his army in an onslaught by Jats in 1026 CE.[73]
Mahmud appointed all his ministers himself without advising hisdiwan, though occasionally he had to, as his religion dictated that Muslims should consult each other on all issues.[116] Most of the time he was suspicious of his ministers, particularly of the wazir, and the following words are widely believed to be his: "wazirs are the enemies of kings..."[117]
Mahmud had three Wazirs. In 995 AD, formerSamanid noblemanAbu'l-'Abbas Fadl b. Ahmad, became the first Wazir of Mahmud. In 1013 AD, he was charged with extortion and imprisoned. He died the same year. He was succeeded by Mahmud's foster brotherShamsu'l Kufat Abu'l Qasim Ahmad bin Hasan al Maimandi in 1014 AD. In 1025 AD he was dismissed and sent to fort ofKalanjar. After the Sultan's death he was reappointed byMas'ud I. Ahmad was succeeded byAbū ‘Alī Hasan bin Muhammad bin ‘Abbās. In 1023 AD he went toHajj. The Fatimid rulerAl Zahir honoured him with aKhil’at (robe of honour) which offended Abbasid CaliphAl-Qadir. Sultan Mahmud sent theKhi’lat to Baghdad to be burnt. During the time of his service he often insulted Masud. After Masud became Sultan he was charged of being aQaramatian and put to death in 1031 AD.[118]
The head of the Dīwān-i-‘Ard or the military department was known as Ārid or Şahib-i-Dīwān-i-'Ard.[119] The Arid's duty was to maintain the welfare of soldiers and efficiency as well as to maintain the collection of war booty. Every year he reviewed the entire Ghaznavid army whichmarched before him in the plains of Shabahar, Ghazni. The assistant of Ārid was called Naib-i-‘Ard. The Ārid kept the records of fallen soldiers from illness, retirement and war. During war times the Arid was the Quarter Master General of the army.[120]
The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, elite body guards and elephants. The core of the army was slave soldiers.[121] Thebodyguards of the Sultan consisted chiefly of slaves under direct order of Sultan. Their banner had the distinctive device of a lion and spears. Mahmud's army employedHindus as elephant drivers and their commander was calledMuqaddam-i-Pil-bānān. The elephants, too, were under the direct control of the Sultan.[122] During Mas'ud's reign the commander of the army in India was shifted to a Hindu ghulam (slave) named Tilak.[123]
In 999 AD, when Mahmud defeated the Samanid under Abdu'l-Malik ibn Nūh at Marv, commanding at least 32,000 horses. In 1015-16 AD, he invaded Balkh. Ghaznavid era HistorianAbu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi estimated the sultan's army numbered 100,000 soldiers.[124]
In 1023 AD, army was reviewed at the plains of Shabahar numbering 54,000 cavalry and 1300 elephants, besides the garrisons in the outposts of the empire to guard the long frontier. 12th century historianSibt Ibn al-Jawzi puts the strength of his army roughly at 100,000, including both the cavalry and infantry. InMakran expedition to place Abu'l Mu'askar to the throne Sultan Mahmud dispatched an army of 4000 cavalry and 3000 infantry. In 1029 an army of 8,000 cavalrymen was composed during the conquest of Rey. In 1035, 15,000 cavalry and 2000 ghulams participated in thebattle of Nasa against the Seljuks.[125]
The total number of the slaves was about 4000 and 1700 elephants.[126] Each of the elephants used to cost 100,000 dirhams.[127]
The sultan was the chief commander of the army. The next highest office under him was the commander of Khurasan which was held by his brother Nasr and Yusuf successively.[128] The army was mainly recruited fromTransoxiana butArabs,Afghans,Daylamites,Khurasanis,Ghuris andIndians were also recruited.[129]
Each province had a commander of the local troops, who was usually aTurkomān. Every provincial army had its own Arid who had an assistant called Nā'ib-i-'Ard and a Kat-khuda, i.e. Quarter-master. There was a Şahib-Barid, or Master of the Post, attached to every army.[130]
The Diwan-i-Risalat or Correspondence Department, works like "the repository of secrets". Şahib-i-Diwān-i-Risalat, was the head of the Correspondence Department. The chief officer's tasks were to write Sultan's letters to theCaliph, foreign princes, local governors and foreign empires. The office hours were from 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning to 3 pm in the afternoon. Tuesday and Friday were observed as holidays.[132]
The Department of Secret Intelligence was called Dīwān-i-Shughl-i-Ishrāf-i-Mamlukat. Sultan Mahmud had numerous spies (calledmushrifs) across his empire, supervised by the special department within his diwan. Persons of both male and female served as spies and travelled to foreign lands in disguise to collect useful information for the Sultan. A team of spies (Mushrifān-i-Dargah) kept eyes on the activities of the ministers, princes and courtiers. When the Sultan sent verbal order to an officer, he used to send two men, one of them being a mushrif on the other, to guarantee that the message and its reply were correctly delivered.[133]
To transfer news and reports of spies, there was a regular officialpostal service throughout the empire. The Şāhib-Barīd or Master of the Post at the headquarters of every province was the official news writer whose duty was to inform every important detail to the sultan.[134]
The Şahib-i-Diwān-i-Wikālat, or the Comptroller of the Household's duty was to manage the Royal Kitchen, the Royal Stables, and the numerous staff attached to the Sultan's palace. TheWakil was also in charge of the private treasury of the Sultan, and distributed rations and salaries to his personal staff and his bodyguards.[135]
The justice system employedQadis just like every other Muslim empires. Qadis are expert on the knowledge ofMuslim Law. Every province had a Qadi'l-Qudāt or Chief Qadi. The Qadis is said to have power over the “life and properties of Muslims”. They themselves were the judge and the law. The parties and evidences were carefully considered and judgement was given. If a Qadi misconduct his duties the Sultan himself investigated the issue and dismissed the offender.[136]
There were three important branches of administration in a Ghaznavid province: civil, military, and judicial. The highest military officer in the province was the commander of the provincial army.[137]
Every town was protected by a fort, and the commander of the fort, called Kotwāl who was also the chiefmilitary officer in the locality. The chief civil officer in a town was theMuhtasib orShihna who kept peace and order, monitored unadulterated food supply, legal standard of measurement, free trade. Also the Muslim Law regarding public morality was supervised by him. Criminals were sent to the Amir-i-Haras or the Chief Jailor, for safe custody till they were brought for trial before the Qadis. Religious and educational endowments in each town were administered by a separate office called Ishraf-i-Awqaf.[138]
Silverjitals of Mahmud of Ghazni with bilingual Arabic and Sanskrit minted inLahore in 1028 CE. Obverse in Arabic:la ilaha illa'llah muhammad rasulullah sal allahu alayhi wa sallam "There is no God except Allah, and Muhammad is the meassenger of Allah" Reverse in Sanskrit (Sharada script):avyaktam eka muhammada avatāra nrpati mahamuda "There is one Invisible; Muhammad is theavatar; the king is Mahmud".[139][140][141][142]
The booty brought back toGhazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g.Abolfazl Beyhaghi,Ferdowsi) give descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. He transformed Ghazni, the first centre ofPersian literature,[143] into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. Mahmud brought whole libraries from Ray and Isfahan to Ghazni. He even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.[144]
Mahmud patronized the notable poet Ferdowsi, who after laboring 27 years, went to Ghazni and presented theShahnameh to him. There are various stories in medieval texts describing the lack of interest shown by Mahmud to Ferdowsi and his life's work. According to historians, Mahmud had promised Ferdowsi adinar for every distich written in the Shahnameh (which would have been 60,000 dinars), but later retracted his promise and presented him with dirhams (20,000 dirhams), at that time the equivalent of only 200dinars. His expedition across the Gangetic plains in 1017 inspiredAl-Biruni to compose hisTarikh Al-Hind in order to understand the Indians and their beliefs. During Mahmud's rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine.
The Ghaznavid Empire was ruled by his successors for 157 years. The expandingSeljuk empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. TheGhorids captured Ghazni in 1150, andMu'izz al-Din known as Muhammad of Ghori captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at Lahore in 1187.
Despite Mahmud's remarkable abilities as a military commander, he failed to consolidate his empire's conquests with subtle authority. Mahmud also lacked the genius for administration and could not build long term enduring institutions in his state during his reign.[145][146]
In 2021, Taliban leaderAnas Haqqanitweeted praising Mahmud of Ghazni labeling him as a "renowned Muslim warrior &Mujahid of the 10th century" who "established a strong Muslim rule in the region from Ghazni & smashed the idol ofSomnath".[148][149]
Sultan Mahmud thought of himself as "the Shadow of God on Earth".[150]
He was a man of medium height, and of a powerful and symmetrical build. He had a fine complexion, handsome face, small eyes and a firm, round chin which was covered with a scanty beard.[151]
Mahmud was a patron of literature, especiallyPersian poetry, and he was occasionally found in the company of talented poets either in his palace or in the royal garden. He was often generous to them, paying unstintingly for their works according to their talent and worth.[152] According toDawlatshah, Mahmud had 400 poets in his court.[153] The Sultan himself was a poet and scholar. It is said he was the author ofFiqh work namedTafridu’l Furu.[154]
Following Mahmud's recognition by the Abbasid caliphate in 999, he pledged ajihad and a raid on India every year.[155] In 1005 Mahmud conducted a series of campaigns during which the Ismailis of Multan were massacred.[156]
Following his quest for Jihad in India, Mahmud not only ruined the Somnath temple and plundered its treasures but also killed every devotee present in the town. He did the same with women devotees, either killing them or enslaved them to be later sold in the slave markets of Afghanistan.[157]
Mahmud used his plundered wealth to finance his armies which included mercenaries. Indian soldiers, who historianRomila Thapar presumed to beHindus, were one of the components of the army with their commander calledsipahsalar-i-Hinduwan and lived in their own quarter of Ghazna practicing their own religion and ceremonies.[158] Thapar asserted that the sack of Somnath was a political act and was perceived by the contemporaries in same manner.[159] Indian soldiers under their commander Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were also used against a Turkic rebel, with the command given to a Hindu named Tilak according toBayhaqi.[160]
Indian historianMohammad Habib states that there was no imposition ofJizya on "non-Muslims" during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni nor any mention of "forced conversions":
[H]is (Mahmud's) expeditions against India were not motivated by religion but by love of plunder.[161]
According to A. V. Williams Jackson, "Mahmud vowed that every year he would wage a Holy War against the infidels of Hindustan".[162] During the seventh year of his reign, Mahmud mintage fromLahore styled him as "Mahmudbutshikan" (Mahmud the breaker of Idols).[163]
^Al-Dhahabī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (2014).Siyar Aʿlam al-Nubalaʾ (Resalah Publishers, 30 volumes ed.). Beirut: Resalah Publishers. p. 486.ISBN9789933446659.
^Al-Dhahabī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (2014).Siyar Aʿlam al-Nubalaʾ (Resalah Publishers, 30 volumes ed.). Beirut: Resalah Publishers. p. 487.ISBN9789933446659.
^Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi Al Din (2021).Bayan Talbis Al-Jahmiyyah (King Fahd Edition, 7 volumes ed.). Saudi Arabia: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Call and Guidance King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qu'an General Secretariat. p. 632.ISBN979-8758338278.
^Rafiqi, Abdul Qaiyum (October 1972)."Chapter 1"(PDF).Sufism in Kashmir from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century (Thesis). Australian National University.Archived(PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved5 August 2021.
^Sethi, R. R.; Saran, Parmatma; Bhandari, D. R. (1951).The March of Indian History. Ranjit Printers & Publishers. p. 269.Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved30 March 2021.
^abBaumer, Christoph (30 May 2016).The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols.Bloomsbury. pp. 207–208.ISBN978-1838609399.Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved26 June 2020.In 1026, warriors of the Jats, the indigenous population of Sindh, inflicted heavy losses on Mahmud's army when he retreated from Somnath to Multan. Mahmud returned a year later to take revenge on the Jats, who had been stubbornly resisting forced Islamisation since the eighth century. As the contemporary writer Gardizi reports, Mahmud had 1,400 boats built; each boat was to carry 20 archers and be equipped with special projectiles that could be filled with naphtha. Mahmud's fleet sailed down the Jhelum and then the Indus, until it met the Jat fleet. Although the Jats had far more boats than Mahmud, their fleet was set ablaze and destroyed.
^abNazim 1931, p. 74, Sultan Mahmud and the Ruler of Qusdar
^Nazim 1931, p. 29 "During the first year or two after his accession, Subuktigin added Bust and Qusdar to his kingdom and then turned his attention to India."
^Williams, Teri (3 May 2021)."The Lost Splendour of Ghazni".Edinburgh University Press.Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved19 September 2022.
^Nazim 1931, p. 101 "The Sultan stayed there for some time to subjugate the outlying parts of the kingdom of Bhatinda and appointed teachers to instruct the converts in the rudiments of Islam."
^Salma Ahmed Farooqui (2011).A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 49–50.ISBN978-81-317-3202-1.Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved3 May 2022.Despite his huge conquests, Mahmud could not, consolidate them with firm hand. He lacked the genius for civil administration, and neither did his reign create any lasting institutions. There were no enduring bonds between the conqueror and the conquered in a state that was built and maintained by force alone.
^Satish Chandra (2006).Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526). Vol. 1. Har-Anand Publications. pp. 20–21.ISBN978-81-241-1064-5.Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved9 March 2022.He also gave patronage to literary men and poets, such as Firdausi, and carried forward the Persian renaissance which had begun with the Samanids. But he built no lasting institutions which could outlive him
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Bosworth, C.E. (1991). "Mahmud bin Sebuktigin".Encyclopedia of Islam.VI. E.J.Brill.
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