An illustration in a manuscript of theAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra fromNalanda, depicting the bodhisattvaMaitreya, an important figure in MahāyānaTheFive Tathāgatas in Shishoin Temple (Tokyo). A unique feature of Mahāyāna is the belief that there are multiple Buddhas which are currently teaching the Dharma.
Mahāyāna also refers to the path of thebodhisattva striving to become a fully awakened Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle" (Bodhisattvayāna).[3][note 1] Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of thearhat as incomplete.[4] Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such asAmitābha andVairocana).[5] Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as theMadhyamaka theory of emptiness (śūnyatā), theVijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness" also called "mind-only"), and theBuddha-nature teaching.
According toJan Nattier, the termMahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym forBodhisattvayāna ("Bodhisattva Vehicle"),[9] the vehicle of a bodhisattva seekingbuddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.[3] The termMahāyāna (which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself) was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term forBodhisattvayāna, the adoption of the termMahāyāna and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition.[9]
The earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as theLotus Sūtra, often use the termMahāyāna as a synonym forBodhisattvayāna, but the termHīnayāna is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy betweenMahāyāna andHīnayāna can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era.[10]
Among the earliest and most important references toMahāyāna are those that occur in theLotus Sūtra (Skt.Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.[11] Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlierGandhāriPrakrit version of theLotus Sūtra was not the termmahāyāna but the Prakrit wordmahājāna in the sense ofmahājñāna (great knowing).[12][13] At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, thismahājāna, being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted intomahāyāna, possibly because of what may have been a double meaning in the famousParable of the Burning House, which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt:yāna).[note 2][12][14]
InChinese, Mahāyāna is called大乘 (dàshèng, or dàchéng), which is acalque ofmaha (great大)yana (vehicle乘). There is also the transliteration摩诃衍那.[15][16] The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, includingEmperor Ling of Han's translation of the Lotus Sutra.[17] It also appears in the ChineseĀgamas, though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition.[18][19][20] Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts is different from later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[21]
The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories.[22] The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "Hīnayāna" schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following:
The lay origins theory was first proposed byJean Przyluski and then defended byÉtienne Lamotte and Akira Hirakawa. This view states thatlaypersons were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like theVimalakirti Sūtra, which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics.[23] This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism.[24][25]
The Mahāsāṃghika origin theory, which argues that Mahāyāna developed within theMahāsāṃghika tradition.[24] This is defended by scholars such asHendrik Kern,A.K. Warder and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from the 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along theKṛṣṇa River in theĀndhra region of southern India.[26][27][28][29] The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane (lokottara) nature of the Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha.[5] Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures likeNāgārjuna,Dignaga,Candrakīrti,Āryadeva, andBhavaviveka as having ties to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra.[30] However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such asGandhara and northwest India.[31][note 3][32]
The Mahāsāṃghika origins theory has also slowly been shown to be problematic by scholarship that revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among othernikāyas or monastic orders (such as theDharmaguptaka).[33] Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that the movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist.[24][34] There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas.[17]
The "forest hypothesis" meanwhile states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among "hard-coreascetics, members of the forest dwelling (aranyavasin) wing of the Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living.[35] This has been defended by Paul Harrison,Jan Nattier andReginald Ray. This theory is based on certain sutras like theUgraparipṛcchā Sūtra and theMahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life.[17][36]
Jan Nattier's study of theUgraparipṛcchā Sūtra, A few good men (2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents thebodhisattva path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism.[24] Boucher's study on theRāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra (2008) is another recent work on this subject.[37]
The cult of the book theory, defended byGregory Schopen, states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept.[24] Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejectedstupa worship, or worshiping holy relics.
David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones."[24] Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to the sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious 'pure lands' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime."[24]
Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination ofMahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."[38] Drewes points out the importance ofdharmabhāṇakas (preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement.[38]
Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "Amitabha Buddha" in the "year 26 ofHuvishka" (153 CE)[41] InBrahmi script in the inscription: "Bu-ddha-sya A-mi-tā-bha-sya" "Of the Buddha Amitabha"[42]
The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes fromsūtras ("discourses", scriptures) originating around the beginning ofthe common era. Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as theUgraparipṛccha Sūtra use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and theearly schools. Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation ofGautama Buddha's path to Buddhahood.[17]
Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from the texts translated by theIndoscythian monkLokakṣema in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom ofGandhāra. These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts.[43][44][note 4] Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promotemonasticism (contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy ofarhatship, and do not show any attempt to establish a new sect or order.[24] A few of these texts often emphasizeascetic practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration (samadhi).[45]
Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separateVinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore eachbhikṣu orbhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in thesenikāyas, or monastic orders, continues today, with theDharmaguptaka nikāya being used in East Asia, and theMūlasarvāstivāda nikāya being used inTibetan Buddhism. Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools.[46]
Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists.[47] From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.[48] It is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a "kriyākarma") to memorize and study a Mahāyāna text or texts.[49]
The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the BuddhaAmitābha (an important Mahāyāna figure) was found in the Indian subcontinent inMathura, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear theBrāhmī inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of KingHuviṣka, ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha."[42] There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in theSchøyen Collection describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in the Mahāyāna."[50] Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted fromCentral Asia toChina at that time.[note 5][note 6][note 7]
Based onarcheological evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries."[24] Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in the archaeological record until the fifth century".[51] Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance".[52] Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts likeLotus sutra, such as a concern with preserving texts.[52]
Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not a single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras.[24] One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes:[53]
Thus we find one scripture (theAksobhya-vyuha) that advocates bothsrávaka andbodhisattva practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in a pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, theten bhumis, or thetrikaya, while another (theP'u-sa pen-yeh ching) propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses theparamitas. AMadhyamika treatise (Nagarjuna'sMulamadhyamika-karikas) may enthusiastically deploy the rhetoric ofemptiness without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path, while aYogacara treatise (Vasubandhu'sMadhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya) may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine ofekayana. We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet.
In spite of being a minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century).[54] Some major Mahāyāna traditions arePrajñāpāramitā,Mādhyamaka,Yogācāra,Buddha-nature (Tathāgatagarbha), and theschool of Dignaga and Dharmakirti as the last and most recent.[55] Major early figures includeNagarjuna,Āryadeva,Aśvaghoṣa,Asanga,Vasubandhu, andDignaga. Mahāyāna Buddhists seem to have been active in theKushan Empire (30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historianTaranatha.[56]
Ruins of theNalanda Mahavihara (Great Monastery) inBihar, a major center for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism from the fifth century CE toc. 1200 CEBuddhist expansion in Asia, from Buddhist heartland innorthern India (dark orange) starting 5th century BCE, to Buddhist majority realm (orange), and historical extent of Buddhism influences (yellow). Mahāyāna (red arrow),Theravāda (green arrow), andTantric-Vajrayāna (blue arrow). The overland andmaritime "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".[40]
The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth inthe fifth century. Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are fromBamiyan). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts."[57] Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at the kingdom ofShan shan as well as inBamiyan andMathura.[58]
Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay.[58] By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such asFaxian (337–422 CE),Xuanzang (602–664),Yijing (635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.[59]
After the fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such asNalanda (established by the 5th-century CEGupta emperor,Kumaragupta I) andVikramashila (established underDharmapala c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became the largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries.[60] Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists."[61]
By the fourth century, Chinese monks likeFaxian (c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by theGuptas) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works.[63] These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of theEast Asian Madhymaka (byKumārajīva) andEast Asian Yogacara (especially byXuanzang). Later, new developments inChinese Mahāyāna led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions likeTiantai,Huayen,Pure Land andChan Buddhism (Zen). These traditions would then spread toKorea,Vietnam andJapan.
Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular inEast Asian Buddhism, which is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras.[64]
Beginning during theGupta (c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indiantantric ideas. This came to be known by various names such asVajrayāna (Tibetan:rdo rje theg pa), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or "Secret Mantra" (Guhyamantra). This new movement continued into thePala era (8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism.[65] Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis namedmahasiddhas, this movement developed newtantric spiritual practices and also promoted new texts called theBuddhist Tantras.[66]
Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka,Yogacara and Buddha-nature.[67][68] Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas,dakinis, andfierce deities) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master (vajracarya) orguru.[69]
The source and early origins ofVajrayāna remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars likeAlexis Sanderson argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content fromShaivism and that it developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism andSaivism. Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna works like theSamvara andGuhyasamaja texts show direct borrowing fromShaiva tantric literature.[70][71] However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indiantantrism developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing a chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion.[72]
Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially inKashmir and in the lands of thePala Empire. It eventually also spread north intoCentral Asia, theTibetan plateau and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains the dominant form ofBuddhism in Tibet, in surrounding regions likeBhutan and inMongolia. Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include:Zhēnyán (Chinese: 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra),Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching),Mìzōng (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") orTángmì (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica") in Chinese andShingon, Tomitsu,Mikkyo, andTaimitsu in Japanese.
A Ming bronze of the BuddhaMahāvairocana which depicts his body as being composed of numerous other BuddhasThe female bodhisattvaPrajñaparamita Devi
Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that the Buddhism practiced inChina,Indonesia,Vietnam,Korea,Tibet,Mongolia andJapan is Mahāyāna Buddhism.[note 8] Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory).[note 9] Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized byplurality and the adoption of a vast number of newsutras, ideas and philosophical treatises in addition to theearlier Buddhist texts.
Paul Williams refers to the main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way thatAtisha defines Mahāyāna in hisBodhipathapradipa.[77] As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position."[78] Thus, instead of a specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)."[79]
Buddhas andbodhisattvas (beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has a vastly expandedcosmology andtheology, with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields (buddha kshetra).[5] Buddhas unique to Mahāyāna include the BuddhasAmitābha ("Infinite Light"),Akṣobhya ("the Imperturbable"),Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") andVairocana ("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved the highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings.[80]
An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besidesSakyamuni, but see them as transcendental or supramundane (lokuttara) beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. TheWhite Lotus Sutra famously describes the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons (kalpas) ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time.[81][82][83]
Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".[84]Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth are then usually understooddocetically as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings.[84] Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as anomnipotent and almightydivinity "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities".[85] Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types oftheism (includingpantheism) by different scholars, though there is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the generalrelationship between Buddhism and Theism.[86]
The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations.[87] Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's pure land or buddha field (buddhakṣetra), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained byfaith, meditation, or sometimes even by therepetition of Buddha's name. Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East AsiaPure Land Buddhism.[88]
The influential Mahāyāna concept ofthe three bodies (trikāya) of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" (nirmāṇakāyas) and the "enjoyment bodies" (saṃbhogakāya) are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, theDharmakaya, which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e.emptiness orThusness.[89]
The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (mārga) or vehicle (yāna) is seen as being the superiorspiritual path by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seekarhatship or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake (Śrāvakayāna andPratyekabuddhayāna).[90] Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e.nirvāṇa is a smaller or inferior aspiration (called "hinayana"), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings fromsaṃsāra (the round ofrebirth) by becoming a Buddha.[91][92][93]
This wish to help others by entering the Mahāyāna path is calledbodhicitta and someone who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is abodhisattva. High level bodhisattvas (with eons of practice) are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. They are objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahāyāna world.[94] Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna includeAvalokiteshvara,Manjushri,Tara andMaitreya. Bodhisattvascould reach the personal nirvana of thearhats, but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion.[95][96][94]
According to eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopherHaribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towardsbodhi (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is amahāsattva (great being)bodhisattva.[97] According to Paul Williams, a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as:
that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient beings.[97]
There are two models for the nature of the bodhisattvas, which are seen in the various Mahāyāna texts. One is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained. This could takeeons and in the meantime, they will help countless beings. After reaching Buddhahood, they do pass on to nirvāṇa (after which they do not return). The second model is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa calledapratiṣṭhita (non-abiding, not-established) that allows a Buddha to remain forever engaged in the world. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea ofapratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature.[96]
Illustrated Korean manuscript of theLotus Sutra,Goryeo Dynasty, c. 1340. The three carts at the top which are symbolic of the three vehiclesGuanyin (Avalokiteśvara) with multiple arms symbolizing upaya and great compassion,Leshan, ChinaThe Lotus, especially the puṇḍarīka (white lotus), is used in Mahāyāna to symbolize the nature of bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air. Similarly, the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains unstained by it[98]
In most classic Mahāyāna sources (as well as in non-Mahāyāna sources on the topic), the bodhisattva path is said to take three or fourasaṃkheyyas ("incalculable eons"), requiring a huge number of lifetimes of practice to complete.[99][100] However, certain practices are sometimes held to provide shortcuts to Buddhahood (these vary widely by tradition). According to theBodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening) by the Indian masterAtiśa, the central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings, i.e.bodhicitta.[101]
The bodhisattva's spiritual path is traditionally held to begin with the revolutionary event called the "arising of the Awakening Mind" (bodhicittotpāda), which is the wish to become a Buddha in order to help all beings.[100] This is achieved in different ways, such as the meditation taught by the Indian masterShantideva in hisBodhicaryavatara called "equalising self and others and exchanging self and others". Other Indian masters like Atisha andKamalashila also teach a meditation in which we contemplate howall beings have been our close relatives or friends in past lives. This contemplation leads to the arising of deep love (maitrī) and compassion (karuṇā) for others, and thus bodhicitta is generated.[102] According to the Indian philosopherShantideva, when great compassion and bodhicitta arises in a person's heart, they cease to be an ordinary person and become a "son or daughter of the Buddhas".[101]
The idea of the bodhisattva is not unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism and it is found in Theravada and otherearly Buddhist schools. However, these schools held that becoming a bodhisattva required a prediction of one's future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha.[103] In Mahāyāna, the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the moment in whichbodhicitta arises in their mind) and without the requirement of a living Buddha being present.[103] Some Mahāyāna sūtras like theLotus Sutra promote the bodhisattva path as being universal and open to everyone. Other texts disagree with this and state that only some beings have the capacity for Buddhahood.[104]
The generation of bodhicitta may then be followed by the taking of thebodhisattva vows (praṇidhāna) to "lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings" as thePrajñaparamitasutras state. This compassionate commitment to help others is the central characteristic of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva.[105] These vows may be accompanied by certain ethical guidelines calledbodhisattva precepts. Numerous sutras also state that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of virtues calledpāramitās (transcendent or supreme virtues). Sometimes six are outlined: giving, ethical discipline, patient endurance, diligence, meditation and transcendent wisdom.[106][5]
Other sutras (like theDaśabhūmika) give a list of ten, with the addition ofupāya (skillful means),praṇidhāna (vow, resolution),Bala (spiritual power) andJñāna (knowledge).[107]Prajñā (transcendent knowledge or wisdom) is arguably the most important virtue of the bodhisattva. This refers to an understanding of theemptiness of all phenomena, arising from study, deep consideration and meditation.[105]
VariousMahāyāna Buddhist scriptures associate the beginning of the bodhisattva practice with what is called the "path of accumulation" or equipment (saṃbhāra-mārga), which is the first path of the classicfive paths schema.[108]
TheDaśabhūmika Sūtra as well as other texts also outline a series of bodhisattva levels or spiritual stages (bhūmis ) on the path to Buddhahood. The various texts disagree on the number of stages however, theDaśabhūmika giving ten for example (and mapping each one to the ten paramitas), theBodhisattvabhūmi giving seven and thirteen and theAvatamsaka outlining 40 stages.[107]
In later Mahāyāna scholasticism, such as in the work ofKamalashila andAtiśa, the five paths and tenbhūmi systems are merged and this is the progressive path model that is used inTibetan Buddhism. According to Paul Williams, in these systems, the firstbhūmi is reached once one attains "direct, nonconceptual and nondual insight into emptiness in meditative absorption", which is associated with the path of seeing (darśana-mārga).[108] At this point, a bodhisattva is considered anārya (a noble being).[109]
Skillful means or Expedient techniques (Skt.upāya) is another important virtue and doctrine in Mahāyāna Buddhism.[110] The idea is most famously expounded in theWhite Lotus Sutra, and refers to any effective method or technique that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening andnirvana. This doctrine states that, out of compassion, the Buddha adapts his teaching to whomever he is teaching. Because of this, it is possible that the Buddha may teach seemingly contradictory things to different people. This idea is also used to explain the vast textual corpus found in Mahāyāna.[111]
A closely related teaching is the doctrine of the One Vehicle (ekayāna). This teaching states that even though the Buddha is said to have taught three vehicles (thedisciples' vehicle,the vehicle of solitary Buddhas and the bodhisattva vehicle, which are accepted by all early Buddhist schools), these actually are all skillful means which lead to the same place: Buddhahood. Therefore, there really are not three vehicles in an ultimate sense, but one vehicle, the supreme vehicle of the Buddhas, which is taught in different ways depending on the faculties of individuals. Even those beings who think they have finished the path (i.e. thearhats) are actually not done, and they will eventually reach Buddhahood.[111]
This doctrine was not accepted in full by all Mahāyāna traditions. The Yogācāra school famously defended an alternative theory that held that not all beings could become Buddhas. This became a subject of much debate throughout Mahāyāna Buddhist history.[112]
Prajñāpāramitā is often personified by a female deity in Buddhist art
Some of the key Mahāyāna teachings are found in thePrajñāpāramitā ("Transcendent Knowledge" or "Perfection of Wisdom") texts, which are some of the earliest Mahāyāna works.[113] Prajñāpāramitā is a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain. It is a transcendent, non-conceptual andnon-dual kind of knowledge into the true nature of things.[114] This wisdom is also associated with insight into theemptiness (śūnyatā) of dharmas (phenomena) and their illusory nature (māyā).[115] This amounts to the idea that all phenomena (dharmas) without exception have "no essential unchanging core" (i.e. they lacksvabhāva, anessence or inherent nature), and therefore have "no fundamentally real existence".[116] These empty phenomena are also said to be conceptual constructions.[117]
Because of this, alldharmas (things, phenomena), even the Buddha's Teaching, the Buddha himself,Nirvāṇa and all living beings, are like "illusions" or "magic" (māyā) and "dreams" (svapna).[118][117] This emptiness or lack of real existence applies even to the apparent arising and ceasing of phenomena. Because of this, all phenomena are also described as unarisen (anutpāda), unborn (ajata), "beyond coming and going" in the Prajñāpāramitā literature.[119][120] Most famously, theHeart Sutra states that "all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled".[121] The Prajñāpāramitā texts also use various metaphors to describe the nature of things, for example, theDiamond Sutra compares phenomena to: "A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, an illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, a dream, a lightning's flash, a thunder cloud."[citation needed]
Prajñāpāramitā is also associated with not grasping, not taking a stand on or "not taking up" (aparigṛhīta) anything in the world. TheAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra explains it as "not grasping at form, not grasping at sensation, perception, volitions and cognition".[122] This includes not grasping or taking up even correct Buddhist ideas or mental signs (such as "not-self", "emptiness", bodhicitta, vows), since these things are ultimately all empty concepts as well.[123][117]
Attaining a state of fearless receptivity (ksanti) through the insight into the true nature of reality (Dharmatā) in an intuitive, non-conceptual manner is said to be theprajñāpāramitā, the highest spiritual wisdom. According to Edward Conze, the "patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas" (anutpattika-dharmakshanti) is "one of the most distinctive virtues of the Mahāyānistic saint."[124] The Prajñāpāramitā texts also claim that this training is not just for Mahāyānists, but for all Buddhists following any of the three vehicles.[125]
A statue of the Mahāyāna philosopherNagarjuna, founder of theMadhyamaka school. Considered by some to be anArya (noble) bodhisattva or even the "second Buddha"[126]
The Mahāyāna philosophical school termedMadhyamaka (Middle theory or Centrism, also known asśūnyavāda, 'the emptiness theory') was founded by the second-century figure ofNagarjuna. This philosophical tradition focuses on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature (svabhāva).[127]
In his writings, Nagarjuna attempts to show that any theory of intrinsic nature is contradicted by the Buddha's theory ofdependent origination, since anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. Theśūnyavāda philosophers were adamant that their denial ofsvabhāva is not a kind ofnihilism (against protestations to the contrary by their opponents).[128]
Using thetwo truths theory, Madhyamaka claims that while one can speak of things existing in a conventional, relative sense, they do not exist inherently in an ultimate sense. Madhyamaka also argues that emptiness itself is also "empty", it does not have an absolute inherent existence of its own. It is also not to be understood as a transcendental absolute reality. Instead, the emptiness theory is merely a useful concept that should not be clung to. In fact, for Madhyamaka, since everything is empty of true existence, all things are just conceptualizations (prajñapti-matra), including the theory of emptiness, and all concepts must ultimately be abandoned in order to truly understand the nature of things.[128]
Vijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness", a.k.a.vijñapti-mātra, "perceptions only" andcitta-mātra "mind only") is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahāyāna sutras which later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during theGupta period calledYogācāra. The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is theSaṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, which claims thatśūnyavāda is not the final definitive teaching (nītārtha) of the Buddha. Instead, the ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya) is said to be the view that all things (dharmas) are only mind (citta), consciousness (vijñāna) or perceptions (vijñapti) and that seemingly "external" objects (or "internal" subjects) do not really exist apart from thedependently originated flow of mental experiences.[129]
When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches thenon-dual cognition of "Thusness" (tathatā), which is nirvana. This doctrine is developed through various theories, the most important being theeight consciousnesses and thethree natures.[130] TheSaṃdhinirmocana calls its doctrine the 'third turning of the dharma wheel'. ThePratyutpanna sutra also mentions this doctrine, stating: "whatever belongs to this triple world is nothing but thought [citta-mātra]. Why is that? It is because however I imagine things, that is how they appear".[130]
A Kamakura period reliquary topped with acintamani (wish fulfilling jewel). Buddha nature texts often use the metaphor of a jewel (i.e. buddha-nature) which all beings have but are unaware of
The doctrine ofTathāgata embryo orTathāgata womb (Tathāgatagarbha), also known asBuddha-nature, matrix orprinciple (Skt:Buddha-dhātu) is important in all modern Mahāyāna traditions, though it is interpreted in many different ways. Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature is concerned with explaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas.[132] The earliest sources for this idea may include theTathāgatagarbha Sūtra and theMahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra.[133][132] TheMahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa refers to "a sacred nature that is the basis for [beings] becoming buddhas",[134] and it also describes it as the 'Self' (atman).[135]
David Seyfort Ruegg explains this concept as the base or support for the practice of the path, and thus it is the "cause" (hetu) for the fruit of Buddhahood.[132] TheTathāgatagarbha Sūtra states that within the defilements is found "the tathagata's wisdom, the tathagata's vision, and the tathagata's body...eternally unsullied, and...replete with virtues no different from my own...the tathagatagarbhas of all beings are eternal and unchanging".[136]
The ideas found in the Buddha-nature literature are a source of much debate and disagreement among Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophers as well as modern academics.[137] Some scholars have seen this as an influence from BrahmanicHinduism, and some of these sutras admit that the use of the term 'Self' is partly done in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics (in other words, it is a skillful means).[138][139] According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (ātman) which the Buddha critiqued; rather, it is a positive expression ofemptiness (śūnyatā) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.[140] Similarly, Williams thinks that this doctrine was not originally dealing with ontological issues, but with "religious issues of realising one's spiritual potential, exhortation, and encouragement."[136]
The Buddha-nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state Buddhist teachings using positive language while also maintaining the middle way, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism.[141] This is the position taken by theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtra, which states that the Buddhas teach the doctrine oftathāgatagarbha (which sounds similar to an atman) in order to help those beings who are attached to the idea of anatman. However, the sutra goes on to say that thetathāgatagarbha is empty and is not actually a substantial self.[142][143]
A different view is defended by various modern scholars like Michael Zimmermann. This view is the idea that Buddha-nature sutras such as theMahāparinirvāṇa and theTathāgatagarbha Sūtra teach an affirmative vision of an eternal, indestructible Buddhic Self.[135] Shenpen Hookham, a western scholar and lama sees Buddha-nature as a True Self that is real and permanent.[144] Similarly, C. D. Sebastian understands theRatnagotravibhāga's view of this topic as a transcendental self that is "the unique essence of the universe".[145]
Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists faced various criticisms from non-Mahāyānists regarding the authenticity of their teachings. The main critique they faced was that Mahāyāna teachings had not been taught by the Buddha, but were invented by later figures.[146][147] Numerous Mahāyāna texts discuss this issue and attempt to defend the truth and authenticity of Mahāyāna in various ways.[148]
One idea that Mahāyāna texts put forth is that Mahāyāna teachings were taught later because most people were unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha and that people were ready to hear the Mahāyāna only in later times.[149] Certain traditional accounts state that Mahāyāna sutras were hidden away or kept safe by divine beings likeNagas or bodhisattvas until the time came for their dissemination.[150][151]
Similarly, some sources also state that Mahāyāna teachings were revealed by other Buddhas, bodhisattvas anddevas to a select number of individuals (often through visions or dreams).[148] Some scholars have seen a connection between this idea and Mahāyāna meditation practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and their Buddha-lands.[152]
Another argument that Indian Buddhists used in favor of the Mahāyāna is that its teachings are true and lead to awakening since they are in line with the Dharma. Because of this, they can be said to be "well said" (subhasita), and therefore, they can be said to be the word of the Buddha in this sense. This idea that whatever is "well spoken" is the Buddha's word can be traced to the earliest Buddhist texts, but it is interpreted more widely in Mahāyāna.[153] From the Mahāyāna point of view, a teaching is the "word of the Buddha" because it is in accord with theDharma, not because it was spoken by a specific individual (i.e.Gautama).[154] This idea can be seen in the writings ofShantideva (8th century), who argues that an "inspired utterance" is the Buddha word if it is "connected with the truth", "connected with the Dharma", "brings about renunciation of kleshas, not their increase" and "it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of samsara".[155]
The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholarD. T. Suzuki similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna derive from the Buddha. According to Suzuki, Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while maintaining the spirit of the Buddha.[156]
Mahāyāna often sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha'sDharma. An Indian commentary on theMahāyānasaṃgraha, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:[157]
According to disciples' grades, the Dharma is classified as inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchantsTrapuṣa and Ballika because they were ordinary men; the middle wastaught to the group of five because they were at the stage of saints; the eightfoldPrajñāpāramitās were taught to bodhisattvas, and [thePrajñāpāramitās] are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. -Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā
There is also a tendency in Mahāyāna sūtras to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches. Thus theŚrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to following theśrāvaka orpratyekabuddha paths.[158]
The commentary on theAbhidharmasamuccaya gives the following seven reasons for the "greatness" of the Mahayana:[159]
Greatness of support (ālambana): the path of the bodhisatva is supported by the limitless teachings of thePerfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Verses and other texts;
Greatness of practice (pratipatti): the comprehensive practice for the benefit of self and others (sva-para-artha);
Greatness of understanding (jñāna): from understanding the absence of self in persons and phenomena (pudgala-dharma-nairātmya);
Greatness of energy (vīrya): from devotion to many hundreds of thousands of difficult tasks during three incalculable great aeons (mahākalpa);
Greatness of resourcefulness (upāyakauśalya): because of not taking a stand in Saṃsāra or Nirvāṇa;
Greatness of attainment (prāpti): because of the attainment of immeasurable and uncountable powers (bala), confidences (vaiśāradya), and dharmas unique to Buddhas ( āveṇika-buddhadharma);
Greatness of deeds (karma): because of willing the performance of the deeds of a Buddha until the end of Saṃsāra by displaying awakening, etc.
Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is quite varied. A common set of virtues and practices which is shared by all Mahāyāna traditions are the six perfections or transcendent virtues (pāramitā). Another central practice advocated by numerous Mahāyāna sources is focused around "the acquisition ofmerit, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".[160]
Indian Mahayana Buddhist practice included numerous elements ofdevotion andritual, which were considered to generate muchmerit (punya) and to allow the devotee to obtain thepower or spiritual blessings of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. These elements remain a key part of Mahayana Buddhism today. Some key Mahayana practices in this vein include:
Devotion to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: Mahayana bodhisattvas likeAvalokiteśvara,Mañjuśrī,Tara andAmitābha Buddha are central objects of devotion. Practitioners may recite their names or mantras, bow in front of their statues and offer prayers and physical offerings like flowers and incense to receive their blessings, guidance, or assistance in achieving enlightenment or rebirth in apure land.[161][162][163] In temples and monasteries, offering ceremonies (pūjās) are performed by monks in specific shrines with Buddha statues and other artwork. Donating or contributing money to the building of aBuddha statue or shrine is also another way to practice devotion to these figures.
Text focused practices: The reading, listening to, recitation, memorization, and study ofMahayana sutras, as well as the teaching of their content to others, was major practice in Indian Mahayana and remains influential today.[165] Furthermore,sutra copying, the handwriting of Mahayana sūtra manuscripts (or funding such a project) is also considered a very meritorious act.[166] Sūtra veneration was also practiced, with the physical text treated as a sacred object, often placed on altars, adorned with offerings and communally recited.[167]
Chanting:Buddhist chanting or recitation of sutras, prayers, mantras, anddhāraṇīs is another major ritual element in Mahayana.[168] One text which seems to have been popular in India was theAspiration Prayer for Good Conduct (Bhadracaryā-praṇidhāna or Samantabhadra-caryā-praṇidhāna).[169] In East Asian Mahayana, one of the most widely chanted texts is theHeart Sutra.
Holy sites and temples: Indian Mahayana Buddhists often performed devotional practices in specific holy sites, which often includedstupas,temples, shrines (chaitya) with Buddha statues and other shrines andBuddhist caves. Mahayana temples which focused on housing a central Buddha image became the norm during theGupta period.[170] Pilgrims would often circumambulate the sites, make offerings of flowers, incense, and light, and engage in acts of reverence such as bowing or prostrating.Buddhist temples, stupas and shrines remain an important element of Mahayana Buddhism.
"Seven part worship" (saptāṇgapūjā orsaptavidhā anuttarapūjā), an Indic Mahayana ritual formula which included: vandana (obeisance, bowing) puja (worship), going for refuge, confession of bad deeds (papadesana), rejoicing in merit of all good deeds (anumodana), prayer (adhyesana) and requesting Buddhas to teach (yacana), atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender) andpariṇāmanā (the transfer of one's merit to others).[171] These ritual elements remain important in Mahayana Buddhist ritual practice. For example, these elements are incorporated into modern Tibetan Buddhistsadhanas (ritual recitions, meditation rituals) and they are also incorporated into East Asian Buddhist rituals (such as cofession rites, and refuge rituals).
Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of thePrajñāpāramitā genre, teach the practice of the six transcendent virtues or perfections (pāramitā) as part of the path toBuddhahood. Special attention is given to transcendent knowledge (prajñāpāramitā), which is seen as a primary virtue.[172] According toDonald S. Lopez Jr., the termpāramitā can mean "excellence" or "perfection" as well as "that which has gone beyond" or "transcendence".[173]
This list is also mentioned by the Theravāda commentatorDhammapala, who describes it as a categorization of the same ten perfections of Theravada Buddhism. According to Dhammapala,Sacca is classified as bothŚīla andPrajñā,Mettā andUpekkhā are classified asDhyāna, andAdhiṭṭhāna falls under all six.[175] Bhikkhu Bodhi states that the correlations between the two sets show there was a shared core before the Theravada and Mahayana schools split.[176]
JapaneseSōtō Zen Buddhist monk meditating and begging for alms at Oigawa,Kyoto.Zen master Bodhidharma meditating, Ukiyo-e woodblock print byTsukioka Yoshitoshi, 1887
TheYogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (compiled c. 4th century), which is the most comprehensive Indian treatise on Mahāyāna practice, discusses classic Buddhist numerous meditation methods and topics, including the fourdhyānas, the different kinds ofsamādhi, the development of insight (vipaśyanā) and tranquility (śamatha), thefour foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna), the five hindrances (nivaraṇa), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness, impermanence (anitya), suffering (duḥkha), and contemplation death (maraṇasaṃjñā).[180]
A very popular Mahāyāna practice from very early times involved the visualization of a Buddha while practicing mindfulness of a Buddha (buddhānusmṛti) along with their Pure Land. This practice could lead the meditator to feel that they were in the presence of the Buddha and in some cases it was held that it could lead to visions of the Buddhas, through which one could receive teachings from them.[182]
This meditation is taught in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras such as thePure Land sutras, theAkṣobhya-vyūha and thePratyutpanna Samādhi.[183][184] ThePratyutpanna states that through mindfulness of the Buddha meditation one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream and learn from them.[185]
Those who, while walking, sitting, standing, or sleeping, recollect the moon-like Buddha, will always be in Buddha's presence and will attain the vast nirvāṇa. His pure body is the colour of gold, beautiful is the Protector of the World. Whoever visualizes him like this practises the meditation of the bodhisattvas.
An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualization
In the case ofPure Land Buddhism, it is widely held that the practice of reciting the Buddha's name (callednianfo in Chinese andnembutsu in Japanese) can lead to rebirth in a Buddha's Pure Land, as well as other positive outcomes. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular Buddha used for this practice isAmitabha.[182][187]
East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism also teaches numerous unique meditation methods, including the Chan (Zen) practices ofhuatou,koan meditation, and silent illumination (Chinese:mòzhào, which developed into the Japaneseshikantaza method). Indo-Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous unique forms of Mahāyāna contemplations, such astonglen ("sending and receiving"),lojong ("mind training") andsamatha-vipasyana.
There are also numerous meditative practices that are generally considered to be part of a separate category rather than general or mainstream Mahāyāna meditation. These are the various practices associated withVajrayāna (also termed Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Buddhist Tantra, and Esoteric Buddhism). This family of practices, which include such varied forms asDeity Yoga,Dzogchen,Mahamudra, theSix Dharmas of Nāropa, the recitation ofmantras anddharanis, and the use ofmudras andmandalas, are very important in Tibetan Buddhism as well as in some forms of East Asian Mantrayāna likeChinese Esoteric Buddhism,Shingon, andTendai.
AstasahasrikaPrajñaparamita Manuscript. Prajñaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top),Maitreya and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), c. 1075Frontispiece of the ChineseVajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, the oldest known datedprinted book in the world
The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools. Most of the Āgamas were never translated into theTibetan canon, which according to Hirakawa, only contains a few translations of early sutras corresponding to theNikāyas or Āgamas.[189] However, these basic doctrines are contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as theAbhidharmakośa and theYogācārabhūmi-Śāstra.
In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of theearly Buddhist schools as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism maintains large collections of sūtras that are not recognized as authentic by the modernTheravāda school. The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna', but use the termsvaipulya (extensive) sutras, orgambhira (profound) sutras.[38] These were also not recognized by some individuals in the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities such as theMahāsāṃghika school were divided along these doctrinal lines.[146]
According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sutras contain several elements besides the promotion of thebodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas ofpurelands and great, 'celestial'Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."[38] These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras after the Buddha's death.[38]
Regarding religious praxis, David Drewes outlines the most commonly promoted practices in Mahāyāna sutras were seen as means to achieve Buddhahood quickly and easily and included "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras, that they claim can enable rebirth in thepure landsAbhirati andSukhavati, where it is said to be possible to easily acquire themerit and knowledge necessary to become a Buddha in as little as one lifetime."[38] Another widely recommended practice isanumodana, or rejoicing in the good deeds of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
The practice of meditation and visualization of Buddhas has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain Mahāyāna sutras such as theArya-svapna-nirdesa which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.[192]
As noted by Paul Williams, one feature of Mahāyāna sutras (especially earlier ones) is "the phenomenon of laudatory self-reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with karma to those who denigrate the scripture."[193] Some Mahāyāna sutras also warn against the accusation that they are not the word of the Buddha (buddhavacana), such as theAstasāhasrikā (8,000 verse) Prajñāpāramitā, which states that such claims come fromMara (the evil tempter).[194] Some of these Mahāyāna sutras also warn those who would denigrate Mahāyāna sutras or those who preach it (i.e. thedharmabhanaka) that this action can lead to rebirth inhell.[195]
Another feature of some Mahāyāna sutras, especially later ones, is increasing sectarianism and animosity towards non-Mahāyāna practitioners (sometimes calledsravakas, "hearers") which are sometimes depicted as being part of the 'hīnayāna' (the 'inferior way') who refuse to accept the 'superior way' of the Mahāyāna.[92][104] As noted by Paul Williams, earlier Mahāyāna sutras like theUgraparipṛcchā Sūtra and theAjitasena sutra do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal ofarhatship like later sutras do.[104] Regarding the bodhisattva path, some Mahāyāna sutras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like theUgraparipṛcchā see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.[104]
In the 4th-century Mahāyāna Abhidharma workAbhidharmasamuccaya,Asaṅga refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as theŚrāvakapiṭaka and associates it with theśrāvakas andpratyekabuddhas.[196] Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna sūtras as belonging to theBodhisattvapiṭaka, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.[196]
Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed a massive commentarial and exegetical literature, many of which are calledśāstra (treatises) orvrittis (commentaries). Philosophical texts were also written in verse form (karikās), such as in the case of the famousMūlamadhyamika-karikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way) byNagarjuna, the foundational text ofMadhyamika philosophy. Numerous laterMadhyamika philosophers likeCandrakirti wrote commentaries on this work as well as their own verse works.
Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition also relies on numerous non-Mahayana commentaries (śāstra), a very influential one being theAbhidharmakosha ofVasubandhu, which is written from a non-MahayanaSarvastivada–Sautrantika perspective.
Vasubandhu is also the author of various MahāyānaYogacara texts on the philosophical theory known asvijñapti-matra (conscious construction only). The Yogacara school philosopherAsanga is also credited with numerous highly influential commentaries. In East Asia, theSatyasiddhi śāstra was also influential.
Dating back at least to theSaṃdhinirmocana Sūtra is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":[197]
In the first turning, the Buddha taught theFour Noble Truths atVaranasi for those in theśravaka vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requires interpretation and occasioning controversy.[198] The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in theDharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism.
In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy.[198] Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school ofNāgārjuna.
In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur.[198] These teachings were established by theSaṃdhinirmocana Sūtra as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE.[199] In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by theYogācāra school of Asaṅga andVasubandhu.
Some traditions ofTibetan Buddhism consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism andVajrayāna to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel.[200] Tibetan teachers, particularly of theGelugpa school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, because of their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. TheBuddha Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel.[citation needed]
The differentChinese Buddhist traditions have different schemes of doctrinal periodization calledpanjiao which they use to organize the sometimes bewildering array of texts.
Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to theearliest texts of Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy,Nāgārjuna'sMūlamadhyamakakārikā, mentions the canon'sKatyāyana Sūtra (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work.[201] Nāgārjuna systematized theMādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes, the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.[202] Nāgārjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "nirvanic consciousness" in two different works.[203]
Yogācāra, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon'sLesser Discourse on Emptiness (MA 190).[204] A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition ofemptiness.[205] According toWalpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogācāra school'sAbhidharma-samuccaya is undeniably closer to that of the PaliNikayas than is that of the TheravadinAbhidhamma.[206]
Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.[207]
Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts ofbodhicitta andBuddha nature also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and appear to have evolved from this idea.[208][209]
The main contemporary traditions of Mahāyāna in Asia are:
TheEast Asian Mahāyāna traditions of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, also known as "Eastern Buddhism".Peter Harvey estimates that there are about 360 million Eastern Buddhists in Asia.[210]
TheIndo-Tibetan tradition (Vajrayana Buddhism, mainly found in Tibet, Inner Mongolia and elsewhere in Western China, Mongolia, Bhutan, parts of India, Nepal and Russia, also known as "Northern Buddhism". According to Harvey "the number of people belonging to Northern Buddhism totals only around 18.2 million."[211]
Most of the major forms of contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism are also practiced by Asian immigrant populations in the West and also by western convert Buddhists. For more on this topic see:Buddhism in the West.
Contemporary HanChinese Buddhism is practiced through many varied forms, such asChan (Zen),Pure land,Tiantai,Huayan andmantra practices. This group is the largest population of Buddhists in the world. There are between 228 and 239 million Mahāyāna Buddhists in thePeople's Republic of China. This does not include the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists who practice Tibetan Buddhism.[210]
Chinese Buddhism can be divided into various different traditions (zong), such asSanlun,Faxiang,Tiantai,Huayan,Pure Land,Chan, andZhenyan. However, historically, most temples, institutions and Buddhist practitioners usually did not belong to any single "sect" (as is common in Japanese Buddhism), but draw from the various different elements of Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. This non-sectarian and eclectic aspect of Chinese Buddhism as a whole has persisted from its historical beginnings into its modern practice.[212][213]
The modern development of an ideology calledHumanistic Buddhism (Chinese: 人間佛教;pinyin:rénjiān fójiào, more literally "Buddhism for the Human World") has also been influential on Chinese Buddhist leaders and institutions.[214] Chinese Buddhists may also practice some form of religious syncretism with otherChinese religions, such asTaoism.[215] In modern China, thereform and opening up period in the late 20th century saw a particularly significant increase in the number of converts to Chinese Buddhism, a growth which has been called "extraordinary".[216]
Korean Buddhism is dominated by the KoreanSeon school (i.e. Zen), primarily represented by theJogye Order and theTaego Order. Korean Seon also includes some Pure Land practice.[217] It is mainly practiced inSouth Korea, with a rough population of about 10.9 million Buddhists.[210] There are also some minor Korean schools, such as theCheontae (i.e. Korean Tiantai), and the esotericJingak and Chinŏn schools.
WhileNorth Korea'stotalitarian government remains repressive and ambivalent towards religion, at least 11 percent of the population is considered to be Buddhist according to Williams.[218]
An estimate of the Japanese Mahāyāna Buddhist population is given by Harvey as 52 million and a recent 2018 survey puts the number at 84 million.[210][220] It should also be noted that many Japanese Buddhists also participate inShinto practices, such as visiting shrines, collecting amulets and attending festivals.[221]
Vietnamese Buddhism is strongly influenced by the Chinese tradition. It is a synthesis of numerous practices and ideas. Vietnamese Mahāyāna draws practices fromVietnameseThiền (Chan/Zen),Tịnh độ (Pure Land), andMật Tông (Mantrayana) and its philosophy fromHoa Nghiêm (Huayan) andThiên Thai (Tiantai).[222] New Mahāyāna movements have also developed in the modern era, perhaps the most influential of which has beenThích Nhất Hạnh'sPlum Village Tradition, which also draws from Theravada Buddhism.
Though Vietnamese Buddhism suffered extensively during theVietnam war (1955-1975) and during subsequentcommunist takeover of the south, there has been a revival of the religion since the liberalization period following 1986. There are about 43 million Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhists.[210]
The 14thDalai LamaTenzin Gyatso withDesmond Tutu in 2004. Due to his charisma, the Dalai Lama has become the international face of contemporary Tibetan Buddhism[223]
As with Eastern Buddhism, the practice of northern Buddhism declined in Tibet, China and Mongolia during the communist takeover of these regions (Mongolia: 1924, Tibet: 1959). Tibetan Buddhism continued to be practiced among theTibetan diaspora population, as well as by other Himalayan peoples in Bhutan, Ladakh and Nepal. Post-1980s though, Northern Buddhism has seen a revival in both Tibet and Mongolia due to more liberal government policies towards religious freedom.[225] Northern Buddhism is also now practiced in the Western world by western convert Buddhists.
In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modernTheravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.[226]
Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters inThailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[227]
Cholvijarn observes that prominent figures associated with theSelf perspective in Thailand have often been famous outside scholarly circles as well, among the wider populace, as Buddhist meditation masters and sources of miracles and sacredamulets. Like perhaps some of the early Mahāyāna forest hermit monks, or the later Buddhist Tantrics, they have become people of power through their meditative achievements. They are widely revered, worshipped, and held to be arhats or (note!) bodhisattvas.
In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monkXuanzang describes the concurrent existence of theMahāvihara and theAbhayagiri Vihara inSri Lanka. He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" (Theras), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras".[228] Xuanzang further writes:[229]
The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate theTripiṭaka.
The modern Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna.[230][231][232][233][234] Some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that has not accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the bodhisattva,[231][233] these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specificphenomenological position. They point out that unlike the now-extinctSarvāstivāda school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independententities (dharmas); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism.[235][236][237]
Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins andSautrāntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine ofemptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching.[238] The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in theKathāvatthu.[239]
Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as theHeart Sūtra (Skt.Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya) and Nāgārjuna'sFundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way (Skt.Mūlamadhyamakakārikā).[240][241]
^"The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999).Indian Buddhism: p. 338
^Karashima: "I have assumed that, in the earliest stage of the transmission ofthe Lotus Sūtra, the Middle Indic fornjāṇa or *jāna (Pkt < Sktjñāna,yāna) had stood in these places ... I have assumed, further, that the Mahāyānist termsbuddha-yānā ("the Buddha-vehicle"),mahāyāna ("the great vehicle"),hīnayāna ("the inferior vehicle") meant originallybuddha-jñāna ("buddha-knowledge"),mahājñāna ("great knowledge") andhīnajñāna ("inferior knowledge")." Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some features of the Language of the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra,Indo-Iranian Journal 44: 207–230
^Warder: "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the second century AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in the South." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999).Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
^"The most important evidence – in fact the only evidence – for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema."Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
^"Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahāyāna.",Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493
^"What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and reality: We know from Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahāyāna sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different – in fact seemingly older – ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported.,Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
^"In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at least, appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhist cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no lasting or long-term consequences – there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader scale when nontextual evidence is considered."Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493
^"There are, it seems, very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism...But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism embedded in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in India.",Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
^"It has become increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seems, a loosely bound bundle of many, and – like Walt Whitman – was large and could contain, in both senses of the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements."Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
^abcdWilliams, Paul,Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 21.
^abWoodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher Hugh; Kawanami, Hiroko, eds. (2016).Religions in the modern world: traditions and transformations (Third ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-85880-9.OCLC916409066.
^Foltz, Richard (2013).Religions of Iran:From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 95.ISBN978-1-78074-309-7. Retrieved2017-12-18.In the centuries before the Arab conquests Buddhism was spread throughout the eastern Iranian world. Buddhist sites have been found in Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as within Iran itself.
^abWilliams, Paul.Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Routledge. 2004. p. 50.
^Karashima, Seishi (2000),Who composed the Lotus Sutra?, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 4, p. 170 (note 115)
^abcdNattier, Jan (2003),A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: pp. 193–194
^"北傳：雜阿含769經南傳：相應部45相應4經".Archived from the original on 2020-11-23. Retrieved2019-06-28."長阿含2經".Archived from the original on 2021-02-08. Retrieved2019-06-28.南傳對應經文「凡越渡海洋、湖泊者，他們造橋離沼澤，人們綁桴，有智慧的人已橫渡。」
^"One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts...much of its [Hinayana's] program being in fact intended and designed to allow laymen and women and donors the opportunity and means to make religious merit."Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
^Guang Xing.The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River."
^Williams, Paul.Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition. Routledge, 2009, p. 47.
^Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993.A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268
^"The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" – Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999).Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
^Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W.Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. SUNY Press 2008, p. 1.
^Boucher, Daniel, Bodhisattvas of the Forest and the Formation of the Mahāyāna: A Study and Translation of the.Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra. University of Hawaii Press, 2008
^Hurvitz, Leon (2009),Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma: The Lotus Sutra (Rev. ed.), p. 239. New York: Columbia university press,ISBN978-0-231-14895-5
^Xinru Liu,The Silk Road in World History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 53.
^abWilliams, Paul,Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 60.
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^Reeves, Gene, trans. (2008).The Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic, p. 1. Boston: Wisdom Publications,ISBN978-0-86171-571-8
^Shi Huifeng, Is"Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol. 2, 2016.
^Orsborn, Matthew Bryan."Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra", University of Hong Kong, 2012, page 233.
^Conze, Edward.The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) PP.117-129, University of Hawaii Press
^Lopez, Donald S. (1988).The Heart Sutra Explained: Indian and Tibetan Commentaries, p. 19. SUNY Press.
^Orsborn, Matthew Bryan (2012)."Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra", University of Hong Kong, p. 201.
^Orsborn, Matthew Bryan (2012)."Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra", University of Hong Kong, p. 180-181.
^Conze, Edward;The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) pp. 117-129, University of Hawaii Press.
^Paul Williams,Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Second Edition, Routledge, Oxford, 2009, p. 317
^Kevin Trainor,Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 207
^abZimmermann, Michael (2002),A Buddha Within: The Tathāgatagarbhasūtra, Biblotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, pp. 82–83
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^abSree Padma. Barber, Anthony W.Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. 2008. p. 68.
^Werner et al. (2013).The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana. pp. 89, 93. Buddhist Publication Society.
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^"Though the Buddha had taught [the Mahayana sutras] they were not in circulation in the world of men at all for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent enough students: the sutras were however preserved in the Dragon World and other non-human circles, and when in the 2nd century AD adequate teachers suddenly appeared in India in large numbers the texts were fetched and circulated. ... However, it is clear that the historical tradition here recorded belongs to North India and for the most part to Nalanda (in Magadha)." AK Warder,Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition, 1999
^Li, Rongxi (2002).Lives of Great Monks and Nuns. Berkeley, California: BDK. pp. 23–4.
^Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1907).Outlines of Mahaŷâna Buddhism, pp. 13-16.
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^Lindtner, Christian (1997).Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing: p. 322. Lindtner says that Nāgārjuna is referencing the DN.
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