In thisMalay name, there is nosurname or family name. The nameMohamad is apatronymic, and the person should be referred to by theirgiven name,Mahathir. The word "bin/ibn" or "binti"/"binte" means 'son of' or 'daughter of', respectively.
Mahathir bin Mohamad (Jawi:محاضر بن محمد;[2]IPA:[mahaðɪ(r)bɪnmohamad]; born 10 July 1925) is a Malaysian politician, author and doctor who served as the fourth and seventhprime minister of Malaysia from 1981 to 2003 and again from 2018 to 2020. He was the country's longest-serving prime minister, serving for a cumulative total of 24 years. His political career has spanned more than 75 years, from joining protests opposing citizenship policies for non-Malays in theMalayan Union in the 1940s to forming theGerakan Tanah Air coalition in 2022. During his premiership, Mahathir was granted the title "Father of Modernisation" (Malay:Bapa Pemodenan) for his pivotal role in transforming the country's economy and infrastructure. At100 years old, he is thesecond-oldest living former state leader in the world and the first Malaysian prime minister to reach that age.
During Mahathir'sfirst tenure from 1981 to 2003, Malaysia experienced significanteconomic growth andmodernisation, with his government promoting industry-wideprivatisation and initiating major infrastructure projects, such as theNorth–South Expressway and theKuala Lumpur City Centre. His policies were credited with transforming Malaysia into one ofSoutheast Asia's mostdynamic emerging economies. He was a dominant political figure, securing five consecutive general election victories and maintaining leadership of theUMNO despite internal challenges. Mahathir continued pro-bumiputera policies and oversaw Malaysia's relatively swift recovery from the1997 Asian financial crisis, aided bycapital controls and stimulus measures that diverged fromIMF prescriptions. As prime minister, he was a strong proponent ofAsian values and alternative development models, and he played a prominent role in theMuslim world.
In 1987, he ordered the detention of numerous activists underOperation Lalang, and his administration was involved in the1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis, which raised concerns aboutjudicial independence. He supported aconstitutional amendment that stripped theroyalty of criminal immunity, a move widely regarded as a legal reform strengthening the rule of law. In 1998, the dismissal of deputyAnwar Ibrahim sparked theReformasi and became a major point of political debate in Malaysia. Critics accused Mahathir ofauthoritarianism for centralising power and suppressing dissent, while supporters argued that his actions were necessary to preserve national stability.
Mohamad Iskandar [ms] was the principal of anEnglish-medium secondary school, whose lower-middle-class status meant his daughters were unable to enrol in a secondary school.Wan Tempawan Wan Hanapi [ms] had only distant relations to members of Kedah's royalty. Both had been married previously. Mahathir was born with six half-siblings and two full-siblings.[9] His childhood home, with a single shared bedroom and no electricity supply, was later converted to a tourist attraction and opened to the public.[10][11] During his childhood, Mahathir enjoyed playing snakes and ladders and demonstrated multiple creative talents, including playing the trumpet, interior decorating, and engaging in crafts and carpentry work.[12] He once shared that he wasbullied in his youth, recalling how he sold balloons for a small profit but was forced by a stronger peer to use his earnings to buy food for him.[13]
Mahathir in a school uniform, circa 1939
Mahathir began his education at Seberang Perak Malay Boys School,Alor Setar, Kedah in 1930.[11] Mahathir was a hard-working student. Discipline imposed by his father motivated him to study, and he showed little interest in sports. Having become fluent in English well ahead of his primary school peers, including editing the English student newspaper and winning a series of language awards,[14] he won a position in aselective English-medium secondary schoolGovernment English School in 1933.[11][15] Although he was not a sports fan, Mahathir took uprugby during his school days because he liked the sport and wanted to avoid being lazy and weak.[16] With schools closed during theJapanese occupation of Malaya inWorld War II, he started a small business at Pekan Rabu, selling coffee and snacks such aspisang goreng (banana fritters).[3] Even after becoming prime minister, Mahathir continued to visit Pekan Rabu whenever he traveled to Alor Setar.[17]
After the war, Mahathir graduated from secondary school with the highest rank and enrolled to studymedicine at theKing Edward VII College of Medicine inSingapore.[18] Mahathir studied medicine at what was then called University of Malaya, later renamedUniversity of Singapore.[19] When the university granted him an honorary degree in November 2018, he said "I will always value my stay in Singapore for nearly six years."[20] During his college years, Mahathir developed a passion for driving, often traveling long distances, including from Singapore to his hometown in Alor Setar, in hisconvertible.[21] In 1947, Mahathir, writing under the pen name 'Che Det' inThe Sunday Times, published an article titledMalay Women Make Their Own Freedom, in which he discussed the struggle of Malay women in the post-war period and stated, "It is up to the men and especially the fathers, to realise that they can no longer confine their womenfolk to the kitchen."[12]
Medical career (1953–1959)
The Straits Times reported in 1953 that Mahathir was among the 34 new doctors graduating from the University of Malaya
After graduating in 1953 from theUniversity of Malaya, Mahathir began his housemanship atPenang General Hospital.[22] In 1954, he was sent to Alor Setar General Hospital before being posted to government clinics inLangkawi,Jitra, andPerlis.[22] During his time in Langkawi in 1955, Mahathir was the island's first stationed doctor, witnessing its underdeveloped state—a memory that later influenced his efforts to transform it into a major tourist destination when he became prime minister.[22]
Reflecting on his early career, Mahathir said he prioritised work over salary, starting withMYR 400.00 as a medical officer before a promotion raised it to MYR 770.00.[23] He then resigned to open his private practice, named "Maha Klinik" (Maha Clinic),[11] while his wife worked as a government doctor for 25 years. Maha Klinik was the first privately owned clinic established by a Malay in Malaysia.[24]
Mahathir acquired the reputation of being a caring doctor, willing to make house calls at any hour, trudging across rice fields in the dark to treat patients. If they could not afford his fee, they settled by installments or paid what they had. He was the town's first Malay physician and a successful one. He built a large house and employed a Chinese man tochauffeur him in hisPontiac Catalina (most chauffeurs at the time were Malay).[25][26]
Mahathir andSiti Hasmah were also involved in welfare and public health activities. He served as President of the Kedah Tuberculosis Association, visiting Indian workers on rubber plantations to treat the disease, while she volunteered in the Kedah Family Planning Association.[27] With the money from his medical practice, Mahathir indulged in his entrepreneurial streak and invested in property development,tin mining, a franchised petrol station, and a shop to do quick printing–sometimes to rescue Malay businessmen in trouble. He helped found the Malay Chamber of Commerce and served as its director.[28]
Early political career (1959–1970)
AfterWorld War II ended and theJapanese withdrew, theBritish grouped the Malay states and theStraits Settlements into theMalayan Union, and granted citizenship to non-Malays. This caused major backlash fromMalays and a wave ofMalay nationalism swept across the country. Mahathir became politically activated by these changes, joining protests and activism against the new citizenship policies.[29] Mahathir later argued foraffirmative action for Malays at medical college. While at college, he contributed toThe Straits Times under the pseudonym "C.H.E. Det" and a student journal, in which he fiercely promoted Malay rights, such as calling for the restoration ofMalay as an official language.[30] While practising as a physician in Alor Setar, Mahathir became active in UMNO. His earliest political involvement was in the Kampung Charok Kudong Umno branch, where he made his debut in politics.[31] By the time of thefirst general election for the independent state ofMalaya in 1959, he was the chairman of the party in Kedah.[32]
Despite his prominence in UMNO, Mahathir was not a candidate in the1959 election, ruling himself out following a disagreement with then Prime MinisterTunku Abdul Rahman. Their relationship had been strained since Mahathir had criticised Tunku's agreement toretain British and Commonwealth forces in Malaya after independence. Tunku opposed Mahathir's plans to introduce minimum educational qualifications for UMNO candidates. For Mahathir, this was a significant enough slight to delay his entry into national politics in protest. He contested in the followinggeneral election in 1964, and was elected as the federal parliamentarian for the Alor Setar-based seat ofKota Setar Selatan.[33]
Elected to parliament in a volatile political period, Mahathir, as abackbencher, launched himself into the main conflict of the day:Singapore's future, with its large and economically powerfulethnic Chinese population,as a state of Malaysia.[clarification needed] He vociferously attacked Singapore's dominantPeople's Action Party for being "pro-Chinese" and "anti-Malay" and called its leader,Lee Kuan Yew, "arrogant".[clarification needed] Singapore wasexpelled from Malaysia in Mahathir's first full year in parliament.[33][34] In 1965, Mahathir stated in Parliament that Article 153 of the Federal Constitution, which grants special rights to Malays, was a source of shame for the community and would eventually be abolished.[35] Despite Mahathir's prominence, he lost his seat in the1969 election, defeated byYusof Rawa of thePan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS).[36][37] Mahathir attributed the loss of his seat to ethnic Chinese voters switching support from UMNO to PAS. Being a Malay-dominated seat, only the two major Malay parties fielded candidates, leaving Chinese voters to choose between the Malay-centric UMNO and the Islamist PAS.[38]
Large government losses in the election were followed by therace riots of 13 May 1969. Hundreds of people were killed in clashes between Malays and Chinese. In 1968, Mahathir had expressed concern over escalating racial tensions in two newspaper articles, and feared preventative measures would be needed to avoid violence. Outside parliament, he openly criticised the government, also sending an open dissenting letter to Tunku for failing to uphold Malay interests and calling for his resignation.[39] By the end of the year, Mahathir was fired from UMNO's Supreme Council and expelled from the party. Tunku had to be persuaded not to have him arrested.[37][38]
Expelled from UMNO, Mahathir wrote his first book,The Malay Dilemma, in which he set out his vision for the Malay community. The book argued that a balance had to be achieved between government support for Malays, so that their economic interests would not be dominated by the Chinese, and exposing Malays to sufficient competition. Mahathir saw Malays as typically avoiding hard work and failing to "appreciate the real value of money and property", and hoped this balance would rectify this.[40] Mahathir criticised Tunku's government in the book, which led to it beingbanned in Malaysia.[41] The ban was only lifted in 1981 under Mahathir's premiership.[37][42]
Rise to prominence (1970–1976)
In 1971, Mahathir announced his plan to rejoin UMNO, stating he would make a formal statement at an appropriate time;[43] that same year, he also met Prime MinisterAbdul Razak Hussein during a visit toMorib.[44] Mahathir rejoined UMNO on 7 March 1972.[45][46] Recognizing his potential and sharp political acumen, Razak appointed Mahathir as aSenator for Kedah in 1973.[47] Around the same time, Mahathir also became the chairman of Food Industries of Malaysia (FIMA) Sdn. Bhd.[48][49] In January 1973, as chairman of the FIMA, Mahathir visited a government factory inPekan Nanas.[50] He faced peaceful protests from over 200 workers demanding better working conditions and wage improvements. After Mahathir spoke to the workers and promised to review their grievances, they dispersed peacefully.[50] He remained chairman of FIMA until 1981, when he became prime minister and was succeeded by Basir Ismail.[51]
Mahathir rose quickly in theAbdul Razak government, returning to UMNO's Supreme Council in 1973. He returned to theHouse of Representatives in the1974 election, winning the Kedah-based seat ofKubang Pasu unopposed.[37] He was appointed to Cabinet in September 1974 as theMinister for Education.[52] During his tenure, Mahathir rolled out a new school curriculum for both primary and secondary schools, designed to provide holistic education and cultivate well-rounded individuals.[53] Around this time, he also ceased his private medical practice.[54]
In 1975, Mahathir ran for one of the three vice-presidencies of UMNO. The contest was regarded as a struggle for the party's leadership succession, as the health of Abdul Razak and his deputy,Hussein Onn, waned. Each of Abdul Razak's preferred candidates was elected: former Chief Minister of Melaka,Ghafar Baba;Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, a wealthy businessman and member ofKelantan's royal family; and Mahathir. When Razak died the following year, Hussein, as his successor, had to choose between the three men, alongside the Minister of Home AffairsGhazali Shafie, to be deputy prime minister.[55][56] Mahathir's rivals had significant political liabilities: Ghazali, having been defeated by others for the vice-presidency, lacked the support of UMNO members; Ghafar had no higher education and was not fluent in English; and Razaleigh was young, inexperienced, and unmarried. Despite their lack of a close relationship, Hussein eventually appointed Mahathir as his deputy.[citation needed]
After six weeks of indecision, Mahathir was appointed deputy prime minister on 5 March 1976.[57] Several political figures praised his appointment, recognizing his proven ability and experience.[58] The appointment meant that Mahathir was the anointed successor to the prime ministership.[55][56] In October, Mahathir was appointed to lead a cabinet committee to review the Petroleum Development Act.[59] To address the growingdrug problem, Mahathir launched a nationwide anti-drug campaign in 1978 and announced plans to build a large rehabilitation center onPisang Island,Johor.[60] He later warned that if the issue was not addressed, drug abuse could lead to the destruction of the nation.[61]
Mahathir is regarded as having been a successful Minister of Education and then Minister of Trade and Industry (1978–81).[62][63] In the latter post, he implemented a "heavy industries policy", establishing aHICOM, a government-controlled corporation, to invest in the long-term development of manufacturing sectors such as an indigenous car industry.[64] He spent much of his time in the ministry promoting Malaysia through overseas visits.[65] Besides this, as UMNO deputy president, he played a key role in coordinating among the ten component parties of the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition.[66] In the1978 general election, Mahathir served as BN's election director for the state of Perak.[67]
In September 1978, Mahathir launched the Central Unit of the Federal Industrial Development Authority, a streamlined "one-stop agency" aimed at simplifying the application process for licences, permits, and facilities.[68] Later that month, he led a 31-member trade delegation on a 20-day tour to the United States, aiming to attract American investors by highlighting opportunities in Malaysia, including tax exemptions and other incentives.[69] In June 1979, Mahathir led a 23-member delegation toPyongyang to sign Malaysia's first trade agreement withNorth Korea, aimed at exploring opportunities to increase imports of North Korean products.[70] During the visit, he also met with North Korea's supreme leader,Kim Il Sung.[71] In August, Mahathir reported that total approved capital investment in Malaysian companies for 1978 had increased by 38.6 per cent from the previous year, rising fromUS$441.3 million in 1977 to US$611.4 million; the number of approved projects also increased from 400 to 428, and the number of approved projects for expansion grew from 103 in 1976 and 150 in 1977 to 190 in 1978.[72] In December, Mahathir launched the Manpower Development Board to improve manpower training and to help make the 1980s a decade of resource-based industries.[73]
In 1981, facing health issues and advancing age, Hussein Onn decided to step down, paving the way for Mahathir to take over.[74] In his first speech as UMNO president, Mahathir said that Malaysia and the majority Malays had a bright future, but achieving it required a just, strong, and stable government.[75] A few days before being sworn in, Mahathir toldBernama that there would be no major changes in Malaysia's policies, particularly in foreign affairs, trade, and education, while also emphasizingIslam's continued prominence as the official religion.[76][77]
Two days later, he announced a new cabinet with minor changes, including the transfer ofHome MinisterGhazali Shafie toForeign Affairs.[82] Mahathir appointedMusa Hitam as deputy prime minister.[83] Several days later, on 23 July, Mahathir held his first Cabinet meeting, during which he announced that ministers would have one year to demonstrate progress in achieving national objectives and implementing development programs.[84]
One of his first acts was to release 21 detainees held under theInternal Security Act. This included journalistAbdul Samad Ismail andAbdullah Ahmad, who was a former deputy minister in the former government but was suspected of being an undergroundcommunist.[85] By August 1982, the Mahathir administration had granted pardons to approximately 250 people.[86] Mahathir prioritized a clean and efficient government, initiating theBersih, Cekap & Amanah (Clean, Efficient, and Trustworthy) campaign to combat corruption, enhance efficiency, and build trust in public service.[87] He also introduced a clock-in system in government departments to ensure punctuality while emphasizing that efficiency should remain the priority.[88] Under calls from opposition leaderLim Kit Siang and others,[89] Musa Hitam, serving concurrently as Home Minister, lifted the ban on Mahathir's bookThe Malay Dilemma.[90][91]
Shortly after taking office, Mahathir, in collaboration withSingaporean Prime MinisterLee Kuan Yew, initiated efforts to standardize Malaysia's time zones.[92] Mahathir introduced and passed the Malaysian Standard Time Act, which came into effect on 31 December 1981, setting the clocks forward by 30 minutes toGMT+8.[93] This legislation, championed by Mahathir, not only unified the time zones ofEast andPeninsular Malaysia but also aligned the country with regional economic hubs such asHong Kong,Manila, andPerth.[92]
Mahathir secured a decisive victory in the1982 general election,[94] strengthening UMNO's leadership with the government's best-ever result since independence in 1957.[95] His development-oriented approach during his first nine months in office resonated with the people, reinforcing their support for his vision of a "clean, efficient and trustworthy" government.[96] Afterwards, he reinforced this vision by implementing measures such as requiring ministers to declare their assets, limiting land applications to one piece per leader, discouraging conflicts of interest with public-listed companies, and advising against ostentation and visits to nightclubs.[97] Mahathir further emphasized this vision by launching the "Leadership-by-Example" campaign in 1983 at Stadium Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur, encouraging leaders and civil servants to uphold integrity, professionalism, and ethical behavior in order to inspire public trust and ensure that national objectives were achieved through exemplary conduct.[98][99][100]
In 1983, Mahathir undertook one of the first challenges he had withMalaysia's royalty. The position ofYang di-Pertuan Agong, the Malaysian head of state, was due to rotate into either the elderlyIdris Shah II ofPerak or the controversialIskandar of Johor, who had only a few years earlier been convicted of manslaughter. Mahathir had grave reservations about the two Sultans, who were both activist rulers of their own states.[101][102]
Mahathir tried to pre-emptively limit the power that the new Agong could wield over his government. He introduced to parliament amendments to theConstitution to deem the Agong toassent to any bill that had not been assented within 15 days of passage by Parliament. The proposal removed the power to declare astate of emergency from the Agong and placed it with the prime minister. The Agong at the time,Ahmad Shah of Pahang, agreed with the proposals in principle, but baulked when he realised that the proposal would deem Sultans to assent to laws passed by state assemblies. Supported by the Sultans, the Agong refused to assent to the constitutional amendments, which had passed both houses of Parliament with comfortable majorities.[103][104]
When the public became aware of the impasse, and the Sultans refused to compromise with the government, Mahathir took to the streets to demonstrate public support for his position in mass rallies. The press took the side of the government. A large minority of Malays, including conservative UMNO politicians, and an even larger proportion of the Chinese community supported the Sultans. After five months, the crisis was resolved, as Mahathir and the Sultans agreed to a compromise. The Agong retained the power to declare a state of emergency. However, if he refused to assent to a bill, the bill would return to Parliament, which could then override Agong's veto.[105] In 1984, Mahathir was re-elected unopposed as UMNO president for a second term.[106]
A 1989 model of theProton Saga. Mahathir believed that anautomotive industry could help turn Malaysia into becoming anindustrial nation. His government used tariffs to support the development of theProton as a Malaysian-made car and limited capital outflow of theringgit to foreign countries.
On the economic front, Mahathir inherited theNew Economic Policy from his predecessors, which was designed to improve the economic position of thebumiputera—Malaysia's Malays andIndigenous peoples—via targets and affirmative action in areas such as corporate ownership and university admission.[107] Like many of hiseconomic liberal contemporaries such asBritish prime ministerMargaret Thatcher, Mahathir actively pursuedprivatisation of government enterprises from the early 1980s. Mahathir believed this would provide economic opportunities for bumiputera and their businesses.[108] His government privatisedairlines, utilities andtelecommunication firms, accelerating to a rate of about 50 privatisations a year by the mid-1990s.[109]
Privatisation generally improved the working conditions of Malaysians in privatised industries and raised significant revenue for the government. One of the most notable infrastructure projects at the time was the construction of theNorth–South Expressway, a motorway running from the Thai border to Singapore.[110] Mahathir oversaw the establishment of the car manufacturerProton as a joint venture between the Malaysian government andMitsubishi.[111] By the end of the 1980s, with the support of protectivetariffs, Proton became a profitable enterprise and the largest carmaker in Southeast Asia.[112]
Under Mahathir's leadership, Malaysia implemented strict drug laws, considering drug-related offences a significant national security concern.[113] In 1983, Mahathir launched an Anti-Drug Campaign,[114] enacted the Drug Dependants (Treatment and Rehabilitation) Act, and established Pusat Serenti as a rehabilitation center for drug dependents.[115] The Cabinet also approved the formation of the Anti-Drugs Committee (JKAD) and the Anti-Drugs Task Force (PPAD) under the National Security Council to oversee anti-drug efforts.[115] As the campaign was officially launched on 19 February, this date was later designated as National Anti-Drugs Day in Malaysia.[116]
These efforts led to a decrease in drug-related cases, from 14,624 in 1983 to 7,596 in 1987.[114] The number of foreign nationals apprehended for drug trafficking also declined, attributed to strict law enforcement and preventive measures.[114] Between 1983 and 1992, more than 120 individuals were executed for drug-related crimes, with an average of 15 to 16 executions per year recorded between 1980 and 1996, including at least 39 executions in 1992.[113] In 1986, AustraliansKevin Barlow and Brian Chambers became the first Westerners executed under Malaysia's mandatory death penalty for drug trafficking, despite last-minute clemency appeals fromAustralia and theUnited Kingdom.[117] Mahathir defended the decision, emphasizing that Malaysia's strict anti-drug laws applied equally to all, regardless of nationality or background.[117]
In Mahathir's early years as prime minister, Malaysia experienced a resurgence ofIslam andconservatism among Malays. PAS, which had joined UMNO in government in the 1970s, responded to the resurgence by taking an increasingly stridentIslamist stand under the leadership ofYusof Rawa. Mahathir tried to appeal to religious voters by establishing Islamic institutions such as theInternational Islamic University of Malaysia which could promote Islamic education under government oversight.[118]
He managed to drawAnwar Ibrahim, the leader of theMalaysian Islamic Youth Movement (ABIM), into the ranks of UMNO. In some cases, Mahathir's government employed repression against more extreme exponents of Islamism.Ibrahim Libya, a popular Islamist leader, was killed in apolice shoot-out in 1985.Al-Arqam, a religious sect, was banned, and its leader,Ashaari Mohammad, was arrested under theInternal Security Act.[118] Mahathir comprehensively defeated PAS at the polls in1986,[119] winning 83 seats of the 84 seats it contested, leaving PAS with just oneMember of Parliament (MP).[120] The election saw the BN achieve a landslide victory, securing 148 out of 177 parliamentary seats and control of 11 state assemblies, further consolidating Mahathir's leadership.[121]
In 1987, Mahathir established the Langkawi Development Board and declared the island a duty-free zone. This was followed by the construction of key infrastructure, including the Kuah jetty andLangkawi International Airport in 1988, contributing to the island's transformation into a major tourist destination.[122]
In 1987,Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, who had been demoted fromFinance Minister toTrade and Industry Minister,challenged Mahathir for UMNO's presidency, and effectively the prime ministership. Razaleigh's bid was supported by Musa, who had resigned as deputy prime minister the previous year. While once close allies with Mahathir, both fell out with Musa claiming that Mahathir no longer trusted him. Razaleigh and Musa ran for the UMNO presidency and deputy presidency on a joint ticket against Mahathir and his new choice for deputyAbdul Ghafar Baba.[123][124]
Mahathir's Team A enjoyed the press's support, most party heavyweights, and even Iskandar, now the Agong. However, other prominent figures such asAbdullah Ahmad Badawi supported Team B. In the election, held on 24 April 1987, Team A prevailed. Mahathir was re-elected by a narrow margin, receiving the votes of 761 party delegates to Razaleigh's 718. Ghafar defeated Musa by a slightly larger margin. Mahathir responded by purging seven Team B supporters from his ministry. At the same time, Team B refused to accept defeat and initiated litigation. In an unexpected decision in February 1988, theHigh Courts ruled that UMNO was an illegal organisation as some of its branches had not been lawfully registered.[123][124]
Each faction raced to register a new party under the UMNO name. Mahathir's side successfully registered the name "UMNO Baru" ("new UMNO"), while Team B's application to register "UMNO Malaysia" was rejected. Nevertheless, UMNO Malaysia registered the party asSemangat 46 instead under Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah's leadership.[125] The Lord President of theSupreme Court,Salleh Abas, sent a letter of protest to the Agong, which criticised the prime minister for his comments on the judiciary and called for them to be stopped. Mahathir then suspended Salleh for "gross misbehaviour and conduct", ostensibly because the letter was a breach of protocol. A tribunal set up by Mahathir found Salleh guilty and recommended to the Agong that Salleh be dismissed. Five other judges of the court supported Salleh and were suspended by Mahathir. A newly constituted court dismissed Team B's appeal, allowing Mahathir's faction to continue to use the name UMNO.[126]
Mahathir suffered aheart attack in early 1989,[127] which later inspired the establishment of theNational Heart Institute (IJN) to improve cardiac care in Malaysia.[128] Mahathir was praised for opting to undergo the surgery in his own country.[129][130] He recovered to lead Barisan Nasional to victory in the1990 election.[131] Mahathir interpreted the election results as a reflection of the people's desire for a strong government.[132] Semangat 46 failed to make any headway outside Razaleigh's home state of Kelantan.[133] Following his electoral victory, Mahathir established theDomestic Trade and Consumer Affairs Ministry to better address issues related to trade and consumer protection.[134]
During the same period, Mahathir led the government in negotiations withChin Peng and theCommunist Party of Malaya (CPM).[135] These efforts culminated in atripartite peace agreement inHat Yai between Malaysia,Thailand, and the CPM.[136] According to insiders,[who?] the Hat Yai peace accords were initiated by Mahathir.[137] The negotiations, overseen by Special Branch chiefAbdul Rahim Mohd Noor,[135] were later documented in Colin Abraham'sThe Finest Hours, which included a foreword written by Mahathir himself.[136]
Economic development to financial crisis (1990–1998)
The expiry of the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 allowed Mahathir to outline his economic vision for Malaysia. In 1991, he announcedVision 2020, under which Malaysia would aim to become a fully developed country within 30 years.[138] The target would require average economic growth of approximately seven per cent of gross domestic product per annum.[139] One of Vision 2020's features would be to gradually break down ethnic barriers. Vision 2020 was accompanied by the NEP's replacement, theNational Development Policy (NDP), under which some government programs designed to benefit thebumiputera exclusively were opened up to other ethnicities.[140] Mahathir highlighted that the policy would balance growth with addressing economic imbalances across regions and society.[141]
Mahathir's government cut corporate taxes and liberalised financial regulations to attract foreign investment. The economy grew by over nine per cent per annum until 1998, prompting otherdeveloping countries to emulate Mahathir's policies.[145] Mahathir's bold economic initiatives propelled Malaysia to become the 17th largest trading nation globally.[146] The government rode the economic wave and won the1995 election with an increased majority.[147]
Mahathir initiated a series of major infrastructure projects in the 1990s. One of the largest was theMultimedia Super Corridor, a new information technology district south of Kuala Lumpur modelled afterSilicon Valley.Microsoft chairmanBill Gates, who was a member of an advisory panel assisting Mahathir in shaping the country's information technology policies, praised the project as "really awesome" during a visit to Malaysia.[148] Other significant initiatives included the development ofPutrajaya as the home of Malaysia's public service. He also played a key role in bringing prominent international sporting events to Malaysia, such as theFormula One Grand Prix atSepang and theLe Tour de Langkawi cycling competition, further enhancing the country's international reputation.[149] Mahathir founded the Space Science Center (ANGKASA), leading to the establishment of theNational Planetarium, which was launched in 1994.[150] He also envisioned Malaysia having its own satellite, a vision realized with the launch ofMEASAT-1 in 1995 andMEASAT-2 in October 1996.[150]
Mahathir at the meeting at the Prime Minister's Office in 1995
In 1997, theAsian financial crisis threatened to devastate Malaysia's economy. The value of theringgit plummeted due to currency speculation, foreign investment fled, and the main stock exchange index fell by over 75 per cent. At the urging of theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF), the government cut government spending. It raised interest rates, which only served to exacerbate the economic situation. In 1998, Mahathir defied the IMF's recommendations and implemented bold measures to stabilize the economy. These included pegging the ringgit at RM3.80 to the US dollar, banning offshore trading of the ringgit to curb speculation, and introducingcapital controls.[154] Mahathir also launched domestic policies, such as establishing theNational Higher Education Fund Corporation (PTPTN) to provide education loans during the crisis.[154] He argued that relying on a floating exchange rate would exacerbate financial speculation and increase the burden of repaying foreign-denominated loans.[155] Concurrently, Mahathir authorized the repatriation of Malaysian assets from abroad.[155]
Malaysia recovered from the crisis faster than its Southeast Asian neighbours, aided by an unorthodox capital control policy.[156] The IMF's 1999 Article IV consultation report acknowledged that Malaysia's capital controls and exchange rate peg, initially met with skepticism, had produced more positive results than expected.[157] The report also recognized that Mahathir's policies had helped stabilize the economy, allowing Malaysia to recover faster than many had anticipated.[157] By 1999, the economy had rebounded with a growth of 5.4 per cent,[158] followed by an 8.5 per cent growth in 2000.[159] Mahathir later recalled that his decision to peg the ringgit to the US dollar in 1998 felt like "putting his head on the chopping block".[160]
In the 1990s, Mahathir found himself at odds with Malaysian royalty over conflicting economic interests. In response to conflicts between Malaysian royals and prospective business leaders, Mahathir's government passed a resolution on royal activities. In the 1992Gomez Incident, Sultan Iskandar's son, a representativefield hockey player, was suspended from competition for five years for assaulting an opponent. Iskandar retaliated by pulling all Johor hockey teams out of national competitions. When a local coach criticised his decision, Iskandar ordered him to his palace and beat him. The federal parliament unanimously censured Iskandar, and Mahathir took the opportunity toremove the constitutional immunity of the sultans from civil and criminal suits. The press backed Mahathir and, in an unprecedented development, started airing allegations of misconduct by members of Malaysia's royal families.[161]
As the press revealed examples of the rulers' extravagant wealth, Mahathir resolved to cut financial support to royal households. With the press and the government pitted against them, the sultans capitulated to the government's proposals. Their powers to deny assent to bills were limited by further constitutional amendments passed in 1994.[161] In 1997, Mahathir officially named the Malaysian flag 'Jalur Gemilang' during the 40th Independence Day celebration.[162]
According to biographer Ian Stewart, by the mid-1990s Anwar's leadership ambition was the most serious threat to Mahathir's power. Anwar began to distance himself from Mahathir, overtly promoting his superior religious credentials and suggesting loosening the restrictions on civil liberties.[163] However, Mahathir continued to back Anwar as his successor until the collapse of their relationship during theAsian financial crisis, with Mahathir abandoning the tight monetary and fiscal policies urged by the IMF. As Mahathir took the reins of Malaysia's economic policy over 1998, Anwar was increasingly sidelined. On 2 September, he was dismissed as deputy prime minister and finance minister and promptly expelled from UMNO. No immediate reasons were given for the dismissal. However, the media speculated that it related to lurid allegations of sexual misconduct circulated in a "poison pen letter" at the general assembly.[164] As more allegations surfaced, large public rallies were held in support of Anwar. On 20 September, he was arrested and placed in detention under the Internal Security Act.[165]
Anwar stood trial on four charges of corruption, arising from allegations that Anwar abused his power by ordering police to intimidate persons who had alleged Anwar had sodomised them. He was found guilty in April 1999 and sentenced to six years in prison. Inanother trial shortly after, Anwar was sentenced to another nine years in prison on a conviction for sodomy. The sodomy conviction was overturned on appeal after Mahathir left office.[166]
Anwar's conviction drew criticism from the international community. US Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright defended Anwar as a "highly respectable leader" who was "entitled to due process and a fair trial"[167] and met with Anwar's wife,Wan Azizah Wan Ismail.[168] Wan Azizah had formed a liberal opposition party, theNational Justice Party (Keadilan) to contest in the1999 election. UMNO lost 18 seats and two state governments.[169] By July 2001, Mahathir had reached his 20th year in power but discouraged grand celebrations.[170]
Around the same time, Mahathir established theWomen's Affairs Ministry[171][172] and proposed an amendment to Article 8(2) of the Federal Constitution to include "sex" as a prohibited ground for discrimination, ensuring women's equal rights.[173][174] He also launched Puteri Umno,[175] urging party members to support and nurture the new women's wing.[176]
In May 2002, Mahathir officially opened the PETRONAS Petroleum Industry Complex (PPIC) inKerteh, a world-class integrated petroleum hub developed byPETRONAS that attracted significant foreign investment.[177] During the same time, he also approvedMalaysian Chinese Association (MCA) PresidentLing Liong Sik's proposal to establishUniversiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR).[178] During his tenure, Mahathir proposed sending a Malaysian into space, and on August 7, 2003, he officially announced theastronaut programme.[179][180] This initiative came to fruition in 2007, whenSheikh Muszaphar Shukor became the first Malaysian astronaut to travel to the International Space Station aboard a Soyuz spacecraft under an arrangement with Russia.[181] Sheikh Muszaphar later regarded Mahathir as the 'father of Malaysia's space programme.'[182]
At UMNO's general assembly in 2002, he announced that he would resign as prime minister, only for supporters to rush to the stage and convince him tearfully to remain. He subsequently fixed his retirement for October 2003, giving him time to ensure an orderly and uncontroversial transition to his anointed successor, Abdullah Badawi.[183] Mahathir simultaneously pledged that he would not take on an elder statesman role after retirement.[184] During his final year in office, Mahathir introduced the teaching of Mathematics and Science in English (PPSMI) in 2003, believing that it is crucial for Malaysians to remain competitive in a fast-changing world.[185] During theSevere Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak, Mahathir introduced an RM8 billion stimulus package, contributing to Malaysia's 6.5% economic growth in the third quarter of 2003.[186] The package focused on four main strategies and 90 measures to stimulate economic activity, boost consumption, and encourage investment.[187]
On 29 October 2003, the cabinet paid tribute to Mahathir for his invaluable service to the nation as prime minister for the last 22 years.[188] He also received a record-breaking outpouring of public gratitude, marked by a 5.5 km-long banner displaying messages from over 50,000 Malaysians.[189] The following day, Mahathir presented a review of Malaysia's five-year economic plan at Parliament House.[190] Having spent over 22 years in office,[191][192][193] Mahathir was the world's longest-serving elected leader when he retired on 31 October 2003.[194]
For his contributions to the development and progress of Malaysia, Mahathir was honored by his successor, Abdullah Badawi, with the titleBapa Pemodenan Malaysia (Father of Malaysia's Modernisation) after stepping down from office.[195] The following year, Barisan Nasional leaders and members paid tribute to Mahathir during a dinner in Kuala Lumpur, acknowledging his remarkable contributions to the coalition and the nation.[196]
During Mahathir's term, Mahathir maintained a collaborative relationship with theWest, despite him being an outspoken critic[197] and prioritiseddevelopment models and collaboration from elsewhere inAsia.[198] On his first day in office, Mahathir announced that his government would prioritise strengthening ties with neighbouringASEAN countries, particularly through closer economic cooperation.[199] He chose neighboringIndonesia for his first official overseas visit.[200][201] Early during his tenure, a small disagreementwith the United Kingdom over universitytuition fees led to a boycott of all British goods led by Mahathir, in what became known as the "Buy British Last" campaign.[202][198] Mahathir successfully negotiated withIndonesian PresidentSuharto to bring the 27-yearLigitan and Sipadan dispute with Indonesia to theInternational Court of Justice for resolution.[203]
In a shift from his predecessors, Mahathir frequently condemnedIsrael and ensured Malaysian support for thePalestine Liberation Organization, although he toned down his criticisms after theOslo Accords were agreed.[204] He has been internationally acclaimed as the voice of the developing world.[205] As prime minister, Mahathir undertook numerous international visits to enhance diplomatic relations, promote trade, and gather insights on foreign nations.[206] In 1987, he was elected as the President of the International Conference on Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking.[207]
Mahathir was prominent at the1992 Earth Summit, arguing against an internationalforest conservation treaty over what he saw as the undue impact on the development of poorerGlobal South countries.[208] He had previously threatened to pull Malaysia out of the summit if environmentalists intended to criticiselogging in the country.[209] In 2003, Mahathir spoke to theNon-Aligned Movement in Kuala Lumpur, where he blamed Western nations and Israel for a global rise interrorism.[210] During his final 100 days in office, Mahathir remained focused on offering potent advice to Third World countries on nurturing healthy economies, among other issues.[211]
Sovereignty
During his tenure as prime minister, Mahathir asserted Malaysia's sovereignty over several features in theSpratly Islands, claimingSwallow Reef in 1983,Ardasier Reef andMariveles Reef in 1986, andInvestigator Shoal andErica Reef in 1999. His administration cited Malaysia's continental shelf limits and the 1982UNCLOS as the basis for these claims, while also responding toVietnam's territorial activities in the region. To strengthen Malaysia's position, Mahathir oversaw the transformation of Swallow Reef into an artificial island with military fortifications, establishing it as a permanent naval outpost. Despite this militarisation, he maintained diplomatic engagement with Beijing, balancing relations withASEAN claimants and employing a hedging strategy involvingChina and theUnited States.[212]
Mahathir's foreign policy towards China on the Spratlys was notably pragmatic. While Malaysia pursued its territorial claims, he emphasised dialogue over confrontation. In 1993, he stated that Malaysia had "no problem with China" regarding the Spratlys, and in 1994, he welcomed China's proposal for joint exploration, opposing further internationalisation of the dispute.[212]
In the early 1960s, Mahathir visitedJapan and witnessed its remarkable recovery from the devastation ofHiroshima andNagasaki, symbolized by the1964 Tokyo Olympics.[213] Mahathir announced a "Look East" policy in December 1981.[214][215][198] Under "Look East", Mahathir particularly prioritisedrelations with Japan, hoping this would bolster Malaysia's economy and that Japanese work ethic, values and moral norms would have a positive influence on Malaysians.[198] He made over 100 visits to Japan.[216] Consistent with the "Look East" strategy adopted under his leadership, there was a major push for heavy industries by Malaysia in the early 1980s.[217]
Mahathir also strengthened political and economic cooperation with China, whilst maintaining diplomatic ambivalence on security issues to avoid escalatingterritorial disputes in the South China Sea. He openly criticised China's involvement inMalaysia's communist insurgency, but downplayed any military threat from China after theCold War ended.[218] In 1985, Mahathir visited China for the first time as prime minister, where he met Chinese leaderDeng Xiaoping, establishing a new level of trust that laid the foundation for Malaysia-China relations and set the stage for decades of economic and diplomatic growth.[219] Later, he visited China again in 1993, 1994, 1996, 1999, and twice in 2001.[220]
In the early 1990s, Mahathir played a key role in engaging China with ASEAN despite South China Sea disputes, particularly in the post-Tiananmen and post-Cold War contexts, paving the way for thenChinese Foreign MinisterQian Qichen to attend the ASEAN meeting's opening ceremony in July 1991 as a guest of the Malaysian government, and eventually leading to China's upgrade to ASEAN's dialogue partner in 1996.[221] Amidst the Asian financial crisis, Mahathir also led several large delegations to China andRussia to seek regional economic cooperation.[222]
Besides that, Mahathir also had significant interactions withTaiwan, especially during the 1980s and 1990s, when economic ties between the two sides were at their strongest despite the lack of formal diplomatic relations. During this period, Taiwan was a major investor in Malaysia, ranking among its top five sources of foreign investment, even reaching the top spot in 1990 and 1994. Mahathir himself visited Taiwan in 1984, 1988, and 1997, with two of these visits involving transit diplomacy atTaoyuan Airport. In 1988, he led a delegation of three cabinet ministers on a discreet visit to Taiwan, which drew criticism from Beijing. However, Mahathir defended the trip by emphasizing that Malaysia's engagement with Taiwan was based solely on economic considerations rather than political recognition. His government also facilitated closer ties by allowing Taiwan's trade office in Malaysia to be upgraded and by engaging in high-level exchanges, such as meetings with Taiwanese leaders like PremierLien Chan in 1993.[223]
TheUnited States was the biggest foreign investment source and one of Malaysia's closest allies during Mahathir's rule.[224][225] A 2003 house hearing by the Subcommittee on East Asia and the Pacific of the U.S. House International Relations Committee (now called theHouse Committee on Foreign Affairs) summarises the relationship between the United States and Malaysia as follows: "Despite sometimes blunt and intemperate public remarks by Prime Minister Mahathir, U.S.-Malaysian cooperation has a solid record in areas as diverse as education, trade, military relations, andcounter-terrorism."[226] Mahathir was publicly critical of theforeign policy of the United States, particularly duringGeorge W. Bush's presidency.[227] He has also condemned the US-led war onIraq andAfghanistan.[228]
In 1984, during his first visit to the United States, Mahathir received a warm welcome.[229] He met PresidentRonald Reagan in theOval Office, followed by discussions, lunch, and a press conference.[229] He also made a private visit toTulsa, Oklahoma.[230] Reagan said he and Mahathir "had a valuable exchange of views on international and bilateral issues and found ourselves in agreement to a remarkable degree", but acknowledged differ-ences in Middle East policy.[231] In the years that followed, Mahathir held informal meetings with US presidentsGeorge H. W. Bush,Bill Clinton, andGeorge W. Bush at various locations to discuss issues related topalm oil and the United States' attitude towards Muslim countries.[229] In January 1997, Mahathir visited the United States to promote Malaysia'sMultimedia Super Corridor.[232][233] In May 1986,Nancy Reagan became the firstFirst Lady of the United States to visit Malaysia.[234]
In 1998, US vice-presidentAl Gore gave a speech expressing sympathy for theReformasi movement at theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) conference hosted by Malaysia, infuriating Mahathir and other ministers.[235] Analysts interpreted Gore's comments as criticism of Anwar's imprisonment.[236][237][235] Anwar, who was the preeminent Malaysian spokesperson for the economic policies and reforms preferred by the IMF,[238] later faced criticism after becoming prime minister in 2022 for implementing many conservative and regressive policies.[239]
Shortly after the9/11 attacks, U.S. President George W. Bush called Mahathir, describing their discussion as one of the best he had with world leaders and thanking Malaysia for supporting America'santi-terror efforts.[240]
A newspaper headline from September 1981 reporting the successful "Dawn Raid", an initiative under Mahathir that enabled Malaysia to regain control of Guthrie Corporation from British ownership.
In September 1981, shortly after Mahathir assumed office as prime minister, the country carried out the "Dawn Raid", a calculated operation orchestrated byPermodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB) to regain majority ownership ofGuthrie, one of the largest British-owned plantation companies at the time. This move symbolized a broader effort under Mahathir's leadership to reduce foreign dominance over Malaysia's economy and reclaim control of national assets.[241]
A month after the Dawn Raid, Mahathir introduced the "Buy British Last" (BBL) policy, which lasted from October 1981 to March 1983. The reason for this policy was rooted in several grievances with Britain. Britain's decision to abolish tuition fee subsidies for Commonwealth students placed a heavy financial burden on Malaysia, which had to cover the increased costs for approximately 17,000 Malaysian students studying in the UK. Additionally, British media criticism of Malaysia's internal policies further strained relations. The BBL policy, which directed government ministries and agencies to deprioritize British goods and services, significantly affected Britain, causing estimated losses of between £15.5 million and £50 million in the early months. This eventually led to negotiations, culminating in Mahathir andBritish Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher meeting in 1983 to resolve the tensions and end the policy.[242] Mahathir later recalled persuading Thatcher that raising tuition fees was a mistake, leading Thatcher to introduce scholarships for Malaysian students.[243]
Mahathir reclaimedCarcosa Hill, which had been given to the British by Tunku Abdul Rahman after independence as a sign of good faith, and was home to the British High Commissioner's residence.[244] Mahathir developed a close friendship with Thatcher, leading to strengthened bilateral relations between the two countries during their tenure.[245] Thatcher once praised Mahathir as a truly remarkable national leader[246] and described Malaysia as a textbook example of how to build a prosperous nation.[247] After Thatcher's 1985 visit to Malaysia, bilateral ties improved significantly.[248] Key progress included enhanced trade, particularly in palm oil exports and British technology imports, as well as increased educational cooperation through scholarships for Malaysian students in the UK.[248] Malaysia-UK relations were back on track, leading to Malaysia being chosen to host two major world events — theCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Langkawi in 1989 and theCommonwealth Games in 1998.[244] Mahathir spoke of his good working relationship with Thatcher, saying, "Malaysians should remember that she visited Kuala Lumpur three times — no other British PM has done this before or since."[244] DuringJohn Major's visit to Malaysia in September 1993, five memorandums of understanding, involving several billion ringgit, were signed between Malaysian and British companies.[249]
Mahathir's relationship withAustralia and its political leaders was particularly rocky. AlthoughMalaysia-Australia relations were collaborative, Mahathir was publicly critical of the country'scolonial history and close relations with the United States. Relations reached a low point in 1993 whenAustralian prime ministerPaul Keating described Mahathir as "recalcitrant" for not attending theAPEC summit. The Malaysian government threatened trade sanctions as a response, while the Australian government claimed that Keating's description was a linguistic gaffe, and that what he had in mind was "intransigent".[250]
In November 2002, Mahathir opposed Australia's bid for a seat at the ASEAN summit, emphasizing the need for a thorough study before expanding membership to non-Asian nations.[251] His firm stance, along with Indonesia's reservations, led ASEAN leaders to defer the decision.[251] This marked the third time he had vetoed Australia's efforts to expand its role in the region, having previously played a key role in excluding Australia from theASEAN Free Trade Area and the regular ASEAN-EU talks.[251]
My warmest congratulations on your appointment as the Prime Minister of Malaysia. Your rise to this high office has sprung from your deep convictions and your constancy of political purpose which have led the people of Malaysia to trust your integrity, fairness and firmness. I feel confident that we can work together to strengthen the traditionally close ties between our two countries. I send you my warmest wishes for your success.
–This congratulatory letter was sent by Lee Kuan Yew on the day Mahathir was sworn in as Prime Minister[252]
Not long after assuming office, Mahathir visited Singapore in December 1981 as part of a delegation to meet with Prime MinisterLee Kuan Yew. Among various bilateral discussions, the two leaders agreed to implement a coordinated time adjustment. This led to the passing of the Malaysian Standard Time Act (1981), initiated by Mahathir.[253] Later, Lee paid a return visit to Malaysia in August 1982.[254][255] In the early days of his tenure, Mahathir improved relations with Singapore, not only strengthening bilateral ties[256] but also gaining the support of the Malaysian Chinese community.[257]
During his time, Singapore's requests to Malaysia to move its railway immigration checkpoint away fromTanjong Pagar anddisputes over water payments were major disagreements between the two countries.[258][259] The Points of Agreement of 1990 set out the terms for developing land for aRapid Transit System, although disputes still continued throughout the following decade.[260] Mahathir and Singaporean counterparts also oversaw adispute over the ownership of Pedra Branca, several islets between the two countries, with an agreed exchange of documents to settle ownership of the islets in 1981 being delayed until at least 1992.[261] The1997 Asian financial crisis further escalated tensions, with Singapore offering high interest rates for ringgit deposits leading to cash flow issues in Malaysia.[258] However, Lee remarked that he had made more progress resolving bilateral issues with Mahathir between 1981 and 1990 than during the previous 12 years under Mahathir's two predecessors.[262]
OnLee Kuan Yew's death in March 2015, Mahathir wrote an entry on his blog, expressing grief at the news. Although he often disagreed with Lee, Mahathir wrote that he bore him no enmity for the differences of opinion on the direction of Singapore's development, and thatASEAN had lost the strong leadership of both Lee andSuharto of Indonesia, who had died in 2008.[263] Some analysts observed that with Lee's death, Mahathir was the last of the "Old Guard" of Southeast Asia.[264] On the anniversary of Lee's death, Mahathir told the media that Singaporeans must recognise Lee's contributions towards industrialising Singapore. He said that he does not view Lee "as an enemy and all that, but as a Singapore leader who had his own stand that was not the same with the stand of Malaysia".[265]
In 1997, Mahathir strongly supportedMyanmar's inclusion into ASEAN, stating that "we are going to work very hard to get Burma into ASEAN"[266] despite international criticism and American sanctions against the military regime.[267] Mahathir presided as ASEAN chair over Myanmar's admission, playing a key role in ensuring its membership.[268]
However, by 2003, Mahathir's stance toward Myanmar had shifted significantly, particularly following the prolonged detention of pro-democracy leaderAung San Suu Kyi. In an interview, he openly stated that ifMyanmar's military government continued to refuse Suu Kyi's release, ASEAN might have to consider expelling the country. This marked the first time an ASEAN leader had raised the possibility of Myanmar's expulsion, drawing considerable international attention.[267]
Mahathir andNelson Mandela shared a close relationship, forged duringSouth Africa's struggle againstapartheid.[269] Malaysia played a crucial role in supporting South Africa's transition to democracy, particularly in its preparations for the historic1994 election that saw Mandela elected as the country's first black president.[269] Mahathir was the first international leader to visit Mandela following his release in 1990.[270] During a meeting held at a Zambian government guest house, Mahathir presented Mandela with a silver keris, a symbol of Malaysia's constitutional monarchy system of government.[271]
Mandela visited Malaysia thrice during Mahathir's tenure as prime minister, first in 1990, second in 1993 and again in 1997.[272][273] During his third visit, Mahathir hosted a private dinner for the South African president in Langkawi.[274] The close relationship between the two leaders also benefited Malaysian businesses, granting them a "most favoured" status for securing contracts and business opportunities in South Africa.[275] During Mandela's visit, Mahathir further strengthened this partnership with him by jointly launching the Malaysia-South Africa Business Council (MSABC) in Kuala Lumpur.[276][277] The strong bilateral relations also led to significant progress in political and economic cooperation, with key agreements signed in trade, air services, and shipping.[278] Additionally, Malaysia supported South Africa's development through scholarships for South African students and collaboration in science and technology.[278]
Mahathir visited South Africa three times during his tenure as Prime Minister: a private visit in April 1994 to congratulate Mandela, an official visit in August 1995, and another in May 1997 when he received theOrder of the Cape of Good Hope.[278]
On 27 August 2013, the Mahathir Global Peace Foundation honored Mandela with the Mahathir Award for Global Peace.[279] In the same year as Mandela's passing, Mahathir expressed his deep sorrow, calling Mandela a great leader who dedicated his life to social justice.[280] He admired Mandela's magnanimity, noting that despite years of imprisonment, he focused on reconciliation and sharing opportunities between blacks and whites.[280] Mahathir also paid his last respects to Mandela inPretoria, where he attended as a personal representative of Malaysia.[281]
In 2020, a monument dedicated to Mahathir was erected in theBosnian capitalSarajevo.
Mahathir was a prominent international advocate forBosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina during his tenure. His government permitted Bosnians to come to Malaysia without a visa during theBosnian War.[282][283] He was influential in the establishment of anOIC summit inKarachi in 1993 to discuss the need for weapons forBosnia during the War.[283] Malaysia sentUN Peacekeeping forces to Bosnia and was part of theContact Group advocating for Bosnia at the UN.[283]
In February 2007, Mahathir was nominated by four non-governmental organisations in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the Noble Peace Prize Award 2007. The nominations were made by the Serb Civic Council from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croat National Council, the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology, and the Congress of Bosnik Intellectuals.[284]
Mahathir revived the plan for a "pan-Asian" railway network in 1995, an idea with roots in the early 1900s and later resurfaced in a 1960UN proposal for a trans-Asian railway spanning 118,000 kilometers.[285] In thepost-Cold War era, as regional development cooperation gained momentum inEast Asia, Mahathir proposed the construction of the Trans-Asian Railway linking Singapore, Malaysia,Thailand, and other countries in the central and southern peninsula to China.[286] This was an early example of ASEAN's approach to regional connectivity through infrastructure cooperation.[286] His push led ASEAN to focus on three main routes fromKunming toBangkok, with extensions south to Kuala Lumpur and Singapore.[285]
In 1996, during a visit toKazakhstan, Mahathir emphasized the railway's role in connecting Southeast Asia with China and, eventually,Central Asia, granting landlocked nations access to the sea.[285] His comments also foreshadowed China'sBelt and Road Initiative (BRI), highlighting Kazakhstan's strategic position between China, Russia, andEurope.[285]
Antarctica
In 1982, Mahathir discussed the governance ofAntarctica at the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). He emphasized that Antarctica should be regarded as the common heritage of mankind, opposing any unilateral claims of sovereignty and advocating for international cooperation in its management and resource utilization.[287] At the time, there were concerns that minerals could be exploited in Antarctica, and the media regarded Mahathir's stance as the only political challenge ever mounted to theAntarctic Treaty in decades.[288] In 1984, Mahathir stated that while the Antarctic Treaty system had contributed positively, there was a need to establish a broader foundation for international cooperation in Antarctica, and he proposed the formation of a "special committee on Antarctica" to conduct an in-depth study and build consensus on a new administrative framework for the continent and the mechanisms required to achieve it.[289] Later, in October 1999, Malaysia sent four scientists to Antarctica to conduct research, focusing on air pollution as part of Universiti Malaya's air pollution research unit.[290] Then, in November 2001, Malaysia launched a second mission, sending two scientists from Universiti Malaya to conduct research on marine and biological sciences.[290]
In February 2002, Mahathir led a Malaysian delegation, including his wife,Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali, and several cabinet members, on a visit to Antarctica.[291] They traveled fromUshuaia,Argentina, aboard the Russian icebreakerKapitan Dranitsyn.[290] Mahathir described the trip as a "once in a lifetime" experience and expressed his amazement at the continent's cold yet beautiful landscape.[290]
Retirement and post-first term premiership (2003–2015)
On his retirement, Mahathir was named aGrand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm, the highest honor in Malaysia, allowing him to adopt the title of "Tun".[292][293] Under Mahathir's leadership, Malaysia was transformed into an industrialising nation.[294] He pledged to leave politics "completely", rejecting an emeritus role inAbdullah's cabinet.[295] Abdullah immediately made his mark as a quieter and less adversarial premier. With stronger religious credentials than Mahathir, he beat back PAS's surge in the 1999 election and lead the Barisan Nasional in the2004 election to its biggest win ever, taking 199 of 219 parliamentary seats.[296] On 23 October,Mingguan Malaysia, a Sunday edition ofUtusan Malaysia, published an exclusive interview with Mahathir, marking his first since retiring as prime minister.[297]
After retiring, Mahathir maintained a busy schedule,[298] engaging in various activities and speaking engagements both locally and internationally.[299] In 2005, Russian PresidentVladimir Putin visited him at his private residence, where they held a four-hour meeting discussing Malaysia's economic transformation and development strategies.[300] He emphasized the importance of staying active, stating, "Never retire. You have to work. When you work, it will keep you alive."[298] His office at thePerdana Leadership Foundation and residence at theMines Resort City, as well as expenses for meal allowances, escorts, bodyguards, a medical officer, and a special assistant during overseas trips, are funded by the government under the Member of Parliament (Remuneration) Act 1980 (Act 237).[301]
Mahathir was the CEO and chairman, and hence a senior adviser, for many flagship Malaysian companies such asProton,Perdana Leadership Foundation and Malaysia's government-owned oil and gas companyPetronas.[302] He did not receive any remuneration for his advisory positions.[303] He was also madeUniversiti Teknologi Petronas (UTP) Chancellor in 2004, succeedingRaja Mohar Raja Badiozaman.[304] On 15 June of the same year, Mahathir was appointed chairman of the NAM Business Council International Advisory Panel.[305] In 2006, Mahathir co-founded The Loaf bakery with Motoko Resources Sdn Bhd, opening its first store in Telaga Harbor,Langkawi, before expanding to 12 outlets in locations such as KLCC,Pavilion, Sogo, andEmpire Shopping Gallery.[306] He also served as The Loaf's chairman.[307]
Despite his business ventures, Mahathir remained an influential figure, and his views on national matters continued to draw attention. Mahathir and Abdullah had a major fallout over Proton in 2005. While Abdullah was attempting to reform the company and implemented high importtariffs on foreign cars, Mahathir accused Abdullah's government ofcronyism in relation to import licences.[308] Proton's chief executive, a Mahathir ally, had been sacked by the company's board. With Abdullah's blessing, Proton then sold one of its prise assets, the motorcycle companyMV Agusta, which was bought on Mahathir's advice.[309]
Mahathir criticised the awarding of import permits for foreign cars, which he claimed were causing Proton's domestic sales to suffer,[310] and attacked Abdullah for cancelling the construction of a second causeway between Malaysia and Singapore.[311]
Mahathir complained that his views were not getting sufficient airing by theMalaysian press.[312] In response, he began writing a column forMalaysiakini and starting his own blog.[313] He unsuccessfully sought election from his local party division to be a delegate to UMNO's general assembly in 2006, where he planned to initiate a challenge to Abdullah's leadership.[314] Mahathir had previously missed the UMNO General Assembly twice since 2006 for health reasons.[315][316] After the2008 election, in which UMNO lost its two-thirds majority in parliament, Mahathir resigned from the party.[317] When Abdullah was replaced by his deputyNajib Razak in 2009, Mahathir re-joined the party[318] and urged all former members to follow his move.[319] Before the2013 general election, Mahathir promised to keep the government in check and ensure it fulfilled its manifesto promises, vowing to protest and fight against it if it failed.[320]
Mahathir met with Azerbaijani PresidentIlham Aliyev inBaku, 2 March 2012
Mahathir established the Kuala Lumpur Initiative to Criminalise War Forum in an effort to end war globally,[321] as well as theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission to investigate the activities of the United States,Israel and its allies inIraq,Lebanon and thePalestinian territories.[322] In March 2015, Mahathir attended a conference where he stated his belief in a "New World Order", where an elite would attempt rule the planet in a single world government, and exterminate billions of humans.[323][324]
Return to politics (2015–2018)
On 18 March 2015, Mahathir and Japanese Ambassador Makio Miyagawa attended the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition (LIMA'15)
By 2015, even at 90 years old, Mahathir remained sharp and combative.[325] He repeatedly called for prime ministerNajib Razak to resign over the1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal (1MDB).[326][327] On 30 August 2015, he and Siti Hasmah attended theBersih 4 rally, a mass protest organised in response to the scandal.[328] In 2016, Mahathir chaired theMalaysian Citizens' Declaration, which brought together several political figures and non-governmental organisations in calling for Najib's resignation.[329][330] In this declaration, Mahathir listed 37 points.[331] Later, the Citizens' Declaration reached one million signatures in May of the same year.[332] In the2016 Sungai Besar by-election, he supportedAmanah and other Pakatan Harapan leaders, lending his influence to the opposition coalition.[333]
Mahathir left UMNO in 2016, and formedParti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU).[334][335] The new party was officially registered on 9 September 2016, and Mahathir became its chairman.[336] By 2017, he had officially joined the opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan. Negotiations then took place between different factions of the coalition for Mahathir to become the chairman and prime ministerial candidate.[337] He assumed the position of chairman on 14 July 2017, despite reservations from supporters ofAnwar Ibrahim, who could not contest in polls himself while imprisoned.[338][339]
In 2016, Mahathir had his police outriders withdrawn after his privileges were revoked due to his participation in anti-government events.[340] A year later, in 2017, the government further withdrew his personal bodyguard service provided by the policeSpecial Action Unit (UTK), following the earlier termination of his cook and office assistant's contracts.[341] This decision by the government also drew criticism from various parties.[342][343] However, Inspector-General of PoliceMohamad Fuzi Harun denied this, stating that only ordinary police officers had been recalled, while Mahathir's bodyguard service from the elite UTK remained intact.[344] The Prime Minister's Department also refuted this claim, stating that it was still paying for 21 staff at Mahathir's home and office.[345]
In early 2018, Mahathir was announced as Pakatan Harapan's prime ministerial candidate for theupcoming general election.Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, wife of his former political enemy Anwar, ran as his deputy.[346] Mahathir's election promise was to seek apardon for Anwar, in order to allow him to take over as prime minister after an interim period.[347][348][349]
Pakatan Harapan defeated Barisan Nasional in the2018 general election.[350][351][352] Concerns for asmooth power transition emerged as Najib declared that no party had achieved a majority.[353] TheNational Palace of Malaysia subsequently confirmed Mahathir would be sworn in as Malaysia's seventh prime minister, refuting any claims of delaying the appointment.[354][355] Immediately after the declaration of the results, people in Kuala Lumpur expressed their joy in celebration of the historic victory.[356] Mahathir announced a two-day public holiday, adding: 'But there will be no holidays for the winners.'[357]
Mahathir had promised to "restore therule of law", and reopen investigations into the1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, telling the press that Najib would face consequences if found guilty of corruption.[366] Mahathir instructed theDepartment of Immigration to bar Najib and his wife, the notoriously extravagantRosmah Mansor, from leaving the country after they attempted to fly to Indonesia.[367]
Mahathir formed his cabinet of 29 ministers in June 2018.[368] He abolished the unpopularGoods and Services Tax, reducing it from six to zero per cent.[369] Mahathir implemented a "no gifts policy," stating that he would only accept food, flowers, and fruits, while prohibiting government officials from receiving any other gifts to prevent corruption.[370]
He also vowed to cut fiscal spending by firing thousands ofcivil servants, cancelling an expensiveKuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail link and cutting back on large infrastructure projects initiated under Najib.[371] Malaysia'sfreedom of the press improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in thePress Freedom Index.[372] The government announcedpalm oil cultivation would be limited to 6.55 million hectares by 2023, and began a lobbying campaign to improve palm oil's reputation abroad.[373]
On 20 June 2018, Mahathir met the father of murderedMongolian womanAltantuya Shaariibuu and agreed that the case of her murder should be reopened.[374][375]
A year into his term, Mahathir's approval ratings had fallen as the economy slowed and several planned reforms, such as abolishingcapital punishment and theSedition Act 1948, were not realised amid divisions in the coalition.[376] Mahathir announced theShared Prosperity Vision 2030 in October 2019, which set out for Malaysia to become ahigh income country by 2030.[377][378] Another priority of his administration was a more transparent approach todefence. The government prepared the country's first defence policywhite paper outlining long-term plans for the country.[379]
Mahathir's administration committed to retaining good relations with China,[393] but promised to review allBelt and Road Initiative projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government. He characterised these as "unequal treaties". His government suspended work on theEast Coast Rail Link,[393][394] which recommenced after terms had been renegotiated.[395] Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals withChina Petroleum Pipeline Bureau altogether, citing high repayment costs.[394][396]
On 13 February 2020, Mahathir spoke with Chinese PresidentXi Jinping to express solidarity and discuss cooperation in response to theCOVID-19 outbreak.[397][398] Prior to this, Mahathir had expressed his hopes that 2020, the 'Year of Culture and Tourism' between Malaysia and China, would further strengthen the ties and friendship between the two nations.[399]
By late 2019, disagreements emerged within Pakatan Harapan about Mahathir's planned handover of power toAnwar Ibrahim, eventually culminating in a political crisis in 2020. Mahathir and a faction of the coalition felt that Anwar would be unable to command a parliamentary majority.[400][401] MPs supporting Anwar demanded a timeframe for Mahathir's resignation and handover of power.[400]
In February 2020, MPs opposed to Anwar taking over met and agreed to form a new government.[400][402][403][404] Anwar told the media that he had been "betrayed".[405][406] Anwar and Mahathir met to clarify the situation, where Mahathir insisted he had no involvement in a new government.[400][407][408]
Mahathir, refusing to work with UMNO leaders, submitted his resignation to the Agong,Abdullah of Pahang, on 24 February 2020.[409][410] The Agong appointed himinterim prime minister until a replacement could be agreed.[411][412][413]BERSATU PresidentMuhyiddin Yassin declared the party's withdrawal from Pakatan Harapan; Mahathir also resigned from the party in response.[400] The next day, Mahathir reported to work as usual in his new role as caretaker prime minister.[414] During his interim premiership, he introduced the 2020 Economic Stimulus Package to counter the economic impact ofCOVID-19,[186] based on three strategies: mitigating its impact, spurring people-centric economic growth, and promoting quality investments.[415]
On 29 February, the Agong appointed Muhyiddin prime minister, determining that he was most likely to be able to hold the support of a majority in parliament.[416] Mahathir unsuccessfully attempted to challenge this with the Agong, but eventually left the prime minister's office an hour before Muhyiddin was sworn in.[400][417]
Post-second term premiership (2020–present)
Chief Advisor of the interim Government of Bangladesh, Nobel laureateMuhammad Yunus with Mahathir Mohamad in May 2025.
Despite his advanced age and having stepped down as prime minister, Mahathir remains active on the international stage, frequently traveling, delivering speeches, and continuing to voice his views and influence both domestically and globally.[418] He formed theHomeland Fighter's Party (PEJUANG) in August 2020.[419] Four other MPs joined the new party, including Mahathir's sonMukhriz. The party was registered in July 2021.[420][421] In August 2021, Mahathir and other MPs protested inMerdeka Square, calling for Muhyiddin's resignation over the government's response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, after being blocked from entering parliament by police.[422][423]
In September 2022, Mahathir said he was open to becoming the prime minister for a third time if there were no other suitable candidates.[428][429] Having previously said he would not defend his Langkawi parliamentary seat,[430][431] he announced he would contest the2022 general election.[432][433] In the election on 19 November, Mahathir lost his seat andelection deposit, marking his first defeat in 53 years.[434] No candidate from PEJUANG orGerakan Tanah Air secured a seat.[435][436] He later said that his party's plans "had to be dropped" and he would shift his focus to writing aboutMalaysian history.[437][438]
In February 2023, Mahathir and 13 other members of PEJUANG (leaving his own son as the sole leader of that party) left the party and joinedParti Bumiputera Perkasa Malaysia (Putra).[439][440] Later in 2023, Mahathir began promoting a "Malay Proclamation", aimed at uniting Malays. He met with PAS and PN leaders to garner support for the 12-point document listing political, economic and social issues.[441][442][443] Mahathir was questioned by police over this campaign under theMalaysian Penal Code, for carrying out "activities that undermine parliamentary democracy".[444] Mahathir also left GTA, criticising the coalition for its poor performance in the election.[445] He supportedPerikatan Nasional, the coalition that had ousted him in 2020, in sixstate elections and was named its "unofficial adviser" for the four state governments under its control.[446]
On 31 August 2024, Mahathir attended theMerdeka Day celebration in Putrajaya in his personal capacity, as he was not officially invited by the government. His presence at the event, where he was warmly received by the crowd, sparked public debate. Prominent academic Chandra Muzaffar criticised the government's decision, describing it as a breach of Malaysian etiquette and values, particularly given Mahathir's status as the country's longest-serving prime minister. He stated that the exclusion contradicted the principles of theRukun Negara, which emphasised courtesy and morality, and called for a clear explanation from the government.[447]
In April 2025, Mahathir, accompanied by his son Mukhriz, his daughterMarina, and a group of others, arrived at theNational Mosque to attend the state funeral of his successor,Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
In February 2025, Mahathir's official Facebook account confirmed that his X account (@chedetofficial) had been hacked, resulting in a post promoting cryptocurrency, and efforts were underway to recover it.[448][449] In April 2025, following thePutra Heights pipeline fire inSubang Jaya, Mahathir visited the Incident Control Post and urged the public not to make premature accusations before the investigation was completed.[450] Shortly thereafter, he also attended the state funeral of former Prime MinisterAbdullah Ahmad Badawi.[451] In an interview in May 2025, he criticisedDonald Trump's tariff policies and described him as "living in an old world" over his foreign policy.[452]
On 10 July 2025, Mahathir reached the age of 100,[453][454] making him one of the few world leaders to become a centenarian.[455] The occasion was widely reported by local and international media, and Prime MinisterAnwar Ibrahim, among others, extended birthday wishes.[455] Despite his age, Mahathir remained intellectually active, continuing to write, speak, and share his views through various platforms.[455] Three days later, he was admitted to the National Heart Institute (IJN) for observation due to fatigue, following his participation in a cycling event and a gathering to celebrate his and his wife's birthdays.[456] He was discharged the same day.[457]
On 26 July 2025, Mahathir participated in theTurun Anwar rally atDataran Merdeka, joining several opposition leaders in calling for Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim's resignation.[458] Prior to that, at a rally in Alor Setar, he had similarly urged Anwar to step down, citing mismanagement of national wealth and poor governance.[459]
Mahathir is a vocal critic ofneoliberalism[460] and the Western world.[466][197] In 2011, Mahathir suggested that theSeptember 11 attacks might have beenstaged by the United States government.[467][468] Mahathir condemned theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in 1997, suggesting it be revised to place greater importance on economic growth overcivil liberties.[469] In 2019, Mahathir said that Malaysians should learn from the hard work of China's citizens, which enabled their nation to achieve technological advancement within a few decades.[470] In 2025, he said that China would overtake the United States and remain the world's top power in the long term, while downplaying India's potential to compete with China on a global scale.[471]
In the aftermath of the2020 Nice stabbing andmurder of Samuel Paty, Mahathir posted remarks on his blog. Mahathir said that the attacks were wrong and against Islam, but also argued that Muslims had a right to be angry and kill French people for past massacres committed by the French. Mahathir's post was later circulated on hisTwitter account, where it was labelled for "glorifying violence".[474]
Mahathir was criticised for stoking tensions and hatred by the former Australian ambassador to FranceBrendan Berne, Australian prime ministerScott Morrison, and Frenchsecretary of state for digital affairsCédric O.[475] Malaysian cleric and politicianFathul Bari Mat Jahya also condemned Mahathir's remarks.[476][477] Mahathir responded that his comments were taken out of context and he was not "promoting massacre of the French". Facebook and Twitter later removed his posts.[478]
I don't smoke, I don't drink, and I don't overeat. I eat just enough to keep me going. Once people hit a certain age, there's a tendency to become overweight. Many develop a big stomach, and to feel satisfied, they eat and drink too much, which puts a strain on their heart. I've stayed around 62-64 kg for years, and I can still wear clothes I had made 30 years ago.
Mahathir follows a disciplined lifestyle. He attributes his longevity and health to self-discipline, a controlled diet, regular reading to keep his mind active, and avoidingovereating, which he believes leads toobesity and related diseases.[480] He has consistently maintained his weight at 62 kg for many years.[481] His hobbies includesailing,horse riding, andcarpentry, and he has built a functioningsteam train and a boat.[14] An avid reader, his favorite authors areWilbur Smith andJeffrey Archer.[482]
Mahathir and Siti Hasmah with Indonesian PresidentJoko Widodo and his wifeIriana, 29 June 2018
Mahathir met his wife, Siti Hasmah, during their medical studies, and they married in 1956. They have four biological children—Marina,Mirzan,Mokhzani, andMukhriz—and later adopted three more—Melinda, Maizura, and Mazhar.[483] In 2021, they celebrated their 65th wedding anniversary.[484] His granddaughter, Ineza, has described him as a family-oriented man who enjoys spending time with his grandchildren.[485]
Mahathir is widely known for his workaholic nature.[486] Despite his demanding schedule, he enjoys simple pleasures such as cooking and driving his family to restaurants.[487] He is also a fan of the song "My Way"[488] and owns a stable of horses, most of which were gifted to him.[489]
His childhood home inAlor Setar, namedRumah Kelahiran Mahathir Mohamad, was restored and opened to the public in 1992, showcasing personal memorabilia from his early life.[490]
Over the years, Mahathir has faced various health challenges, includingheart conditions and infections, requiring multiple hospitalisations.[491] He has also been the target ofsecurity threats during his political career, though none have caused him serious harm.
Mahathir neitherdrinks alcohol nor smokes.[492] On 10 July 2025, he celebrated his 100th birthday by making a special live podcast at his office inPutrajaya. He described his centennial as being a "normal day".[493] The occasion was marked by widespread public attention and official greetings, including from Prime MinisterAnwar Ibrahim and other members of hisunity government.[494] Former Singapore Prime MinisterLee Hsien Loong also extended his birthday wishes to Mahathir.[495]
Cultural depictions
In 2015, a 30.48-metre-wide mural of Mahathir was painted in Jalan Pekan Melayu, Alor Setar, featuring him alongside thePetronas Twin Towers andProton Saga, symbolising his legacy as Malaysia's 'Father of Modernisation'.
Mahathir has been depicted in various cultural forms, reflecting his role in Malaysian history. In 2010, the musicalMahathir, the Musical portrayed his life from his early years to his political career, withEsma Daniel [ms] in the lead role. The production was well received and had an extended run. A sequel followed in 2011. In 2012, the playTeater Tun Siti Hasmah focused on his wife,Siti Hasmah, highlighting her career as a doctor and first lady, withNazim Othman [ms] and Esma Daniel portraying Mahathir. A mural of Mahathir was unveiled inAlor Setar,Kedah in 2015. Internationally, a monument dedicated to Mahathir was inaugurated inSarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina in December 2020, created by artist Enes Sivac. The monument includes an excerpt from Mahathir's speech at the International Conference of Parliamentarians on Bosnia-Herzegovina.
^Three of them are the adopted children (Melinda, Maizura, and Mazhar), while the other four are his biological children with Siti Hasmah (Marina, Mirzan, Mokhzani, and Mukhriz).
^Mahathir's birth certificate gives his date of birth as 20 December. He was actually born on 10 July; his biographer Barry Wain explains that 20 December was an "arbitrary" date chosen by Mahathir's father for official purposes.[3]
^Kim Hoong Khong (1991).Malaysia's general election 1990: continuity, change, and ethnic politics. Institute of South-East Asian Studies. pp. 15–17.ISBN981-3035-77-3.
Morais, J. Victor (1982).Mahathir: A Profile in Courage. Eastern Universities Press.OCLC8687329.
Sankaran, Ramanathan; Mohd Hamdan Adnan (1988).Malaysia's 1986 General Election: the Urban-Rural Dichotomy. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.ISBN981-3035-12-9.
Stewart, Ian (2003).The Mahathir Legacy: a Nation Divided, a Region at Risk. Allen & Unwin.ISBN1-86508-977-X.
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