Traditionally, the authorship of theMahābhārata is attributed toVyāsa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The bulk of theMahābhārata was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[6][7] The text probably reached its final form by the earlyGupta period (c. 4th century CE).[8][9]
The title is translated as "GreatBharat (India)", or "the story of the great descendants ofBharata", or as "The Great Indian Tale".[10][11] TheMahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written".[12][13] Its longest version consists of over 100,000shlokas (verses) or over 200,000 individual lines (eachshloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At about 1.8 million words in total, theMahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of theIliad and theOdyssey combined, or about four times the length of theRāmāyaṇa.[14][15] Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called thefifth Veda.[16]
Textual history and structure
Vyasa narrating theMahābhārata toGanesha from a 17th century Mewar manuscript.
The first section of theMahābhārata states that it wasGanesha who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation, but this is regarded by scholars as a later interpolation to the epic and the "Critical Edition" does not include Ganesha.[17]
The epic employs thestory within a story structure, otherwise known asframetales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is first recited atTakshashila by the sageVaisampayana,[18][19] a disciple of Vyasa, to the KingJanamejaya who was the great-grandson of thePandava princeArjuna. Many years later, the story is recited again by a professional storyteller namedUgrashrava Sauti to an assemblage of sages conducting a twelve-year sacrifice for King Saunaka Kulapati in theNaimisha Forest.
Sauti recites the slokas of theMahabharata.
The text was described by some early 20th-centuryIndologists as unstructured and chaotic.Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense "tragic force" but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."[20]Moritz Winternitz (Geschichte der indischen Literatur 1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.[21]
Accretion and redaction
Research on theMahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the presentMahabharata can be traced back to Vedic times.[22] The background to theMahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs "after the very earlyVedic period" and before "the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C." That this is "a date not too far removed from the 8th or 9th century B.C."[7][23] is likely. TheMahabharata started as an orally-transmitted tale of the charioteerbards.[24] It is generally agreed that "Unlike theVedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style,"[23] so the earliest 'surviving' components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest 'external' references we have to the epic, which include a reference inPanini's 4th century BCE grammarAshtadhyayi 4:2:56.[7][23] Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of theMahābhārata, commented: "It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in an original shape, based on an archetype and astemma codicum. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstructthe oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach based on the manuscript material available."[25] That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.
TheMahābhārata itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses: theBhārata proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while theAshvalayana Grihyasutra (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three redactions of the text are commonly recognized:Jaya (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, theBharata with 24,000 verses as recited byVaisampayana, and finally theMahābhārata as recited byUgrashrava Sauti with over 100,000 verses.[26][27] However, some scholars, such as John Brockington, argue thatJaya andBharata refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory ofJaya with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in theAdi Parva (1.1.81).[28] Theredaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18[29] and 12. The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of theAnushasana Parva and theVirata Parva from the "Spitzer manuscript".[30] The oldest survivingSanskrit text dates to theKushan Period (200 CE).[31]
According to what one figure says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning withManu (1.1.27),Astika (1.3, sub-Parva 5), orVasu (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. TheVasu version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa. Theastika version would add thesarpasattra andashvamedha material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the nameMahābhārata, and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The redactors of these additions were probablyPancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Mention of theHuna in theBhishma Parva however appears to imply that this Parva may have been edited around the 4th century.[32]
The snake sacrifice of Janamejaya
TheAdi Parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) ofJanamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why despite this, there are still snakes in existence. Thissarpasattra material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of theMahābhārata by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection toVedic (Brahmana) literature. ThePanchavimsha Brahmana (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of asarpasattra among whom the namesDhritarashtra and Janamejaya, two main figures of theMahābhārata'ssarpasattra, as well asTakshaka, a snake in theMahābhārata, occur.[33]
TheSuparnakhyana, a late Vedic period poem considered to be among the "earliest traces of epic poetry in India," is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend ofGaruda that is included in theAstika Parva, within theAdi Parva of theMahābhārata.[34][35]
The earliest known references tobhārata and thecompoundmahābhārata date to theAshtadhyayi (sutra 6.2.38)[36] ofPanini (fl. 4th century BCE) and theAshvalayana Grihyasutra (3.4.4). This may mean that the core 24,000 verses, known as theBhārata, as well as an early version of the extendedMahābhārata, were composed by the 4th century BCE. However, it is uncertain whether Panini referred to the epic, asbhārata was also used to describe other things.Albrecht Weber mentions theRigvedic tribe of theBharatas, where a great person might have been designated asMahā-Bhārata. However, as Panini also mentions figures that play a role in theMahābhārata, some parts of the epic may have already been known in his day. Another aspect is that Panini determined theaccent ofmahā-bhārata. However, theMahābhārata was not recited inVedic accent.[37]
The Greek writerDio Chrysostom (c. 40 – c. 120 CE) reported thatHomer's poetry was being sung even in India.[38] Many scholars have taken this as evidence for the existence of aMāhabhārata at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of theIliad.[39]
The copper-plate inscription of theMaharaja Sharvanatha (533–534 CE) from Khoh (Satna District,Madhya Pradesh) describes theMahābhārata as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (śata-sahasri saṃhitā).[40]
How theMahābhārata came to be narrated bySauti to the assembledrishis atNaimisharanya, after having been recited at thesarpasattra ofJanamejaya byVaisampayana atTakshashila. The history and genealogy of theBharata andBhrigu races are recalled, as is the birth and early life of theKuruprinces (adi means first). Adi parva describesPandavas' birth, childhood, education, marriage, struggles due to conspiracy as well as glorious achievements.
Maya Danava erects thepalace and court (sabha) atIndraprastha. The Sabha Parva narrates the gloriousYudhisthira's Rajasuya sacrifice performed with the help of his brothers and Yudhisthira's rule in Shakraprastha/Indraprastha as well as the humiliation and deceit caused by conspiracy along with their own action.
3
Vana ParvaalsoAranyaka Parva,Aranya Parva (The Book of the Forest)
29–44
The twelve years of exile in the forest (aranya). The entire Parva describes their struggle and consolidation of strength.
The year spent incognito at the court ofVirata. A single warrior (Arjuna) defeated the entire Kuru army includingKarna,Bhishma,Drona,Ashwatthama, etc. and recovered the cattle of theVirata kingdom.[41]
The first part of the great battle, withBhishma as commander for the Kaurava and his fall on the bed of arrows. The most important aspect of Bhishma Parva is theBhagavad Gita narrated byKrishna toArjuna. (Includes the Bhagavad Gita in chapters 25–42.)[42][43]
The battle continues, withDrona as commander. This is the major book of the war. Most of the great warriors on both sides are dead by the end of this book.
The last day of the battle, withShalya as commander. Also told in detail, is the pilgrimage of Balarama to the fords of the river Saraswati and the mace fight between Bhima and Duryodhana which ends the war, since Bhima kills Duryodhana by smashing him on the thighs with a mace.
Ashwatthama, Kripa and Kritavarma kill the remaining Pandava army in their sleep. Only seven warriors remain on the Pandava side and three on the Kaurava side.
Gandhari and the women (stri) of the Kauravas and Pandavas lament the dead and Gandhari cursingKrishna for the massive destruction and the extermination of the Kaurava.
The crowning ofYudhishthira as king of Hastinapura, and instructions fromBhishma for the newly anointed king on society, economics, and politics. This is the longest book of theMahabharata.
The final instructions (anushasana) fromBhishma. This Parba contains the last day of Bhishma and his advice and wisdom to the upcoming emperorYudhishthira.
The eventual deaths of Dhritarashtra, Gandhari, and Kunti in a forest fire when they are living in a hermitage in the Himalayas. Vidura predeceases them and Sanjaya on Dhritarashtra's bidding goes to live in the higher Himalayas.
The great journey of Yudhishthira, his brothers, and his wifeDraupadi across the whole country and finally their ascent of the great Himalayas where each Pandava falls except for Yudhishthira.
Yudhishthira's final test and the return of the Pandavas to the spiritual world (svarga).
khila
Harivamsa Parva (The Book of the Genealogy of Hari)
99–100
This is an addendum to the 18 books, and covers those parts of the life of Krishna which is not covered in the 18 parvas of theMahabharata.
Historical context
The historicity of theKurukshetra War is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war toIron Age India of the 10th century BCE.[45] The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where theKuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.[46] A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for theJaya, the foundation on which theMahābhārata corpus was built, with a climactic battle, eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.
Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with theMahābhārata narrative. The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1,015 (or 1,050) years between the birth ofParikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession ofMahapadma Nanda (400–329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle.[47] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies.[48] Of the second kind is analysis of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) andMahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.[49]
B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence fromPainted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.[50]John Keay suggests "their core narratives seem to relate to events from a period prior to all but the Rig Veda."[51]
Attempts to date the events using methods ofarchaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid-2nd millennium BCE.[52] The late 4th-millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of theKali Yuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, byAryabhata (6th century). Aryabhata's date of 18 February 3102 BCE forMahābhārata war has become widespread in Indian tradition. Some sources mark this as the disappearance ofKrishna from the Earth.[53] TheAihole inscription ofPulakeshin II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3,735 years have elapsed since the Bhārata battle, putting the date ofMahābhārata war at 3137BCE.[54][55]
Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented byVrddha Garga,Varāhamihira andKalhana, place the Bharata war 653 years after theKali Yuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.[56] According to Varāhamihira'sBṛhat Saṃhitā (6th century),Yudhishthara lived 2,526 years before the beginning of theShaka era, which begins in the 78 CE. This places Yudhishthara (and therefore, the Mahabharata war) around 2448–2449 BCE (2526–78). Some scholars have attempted to identify the "Shaka" calendar era mentioned by Varāhamihira with other eras, but such identifications place Varāhamihira in the first century BCE, which is impossible as he refers to the 5th century astronomerAryabhata.Kalhana'sRajatarangini (11th century), apparently relying on Varāhamihira, also states that the Pandavas flourished 653 years after the beginning of the Kali Yuga; Kalhana adds that people who believe that the Bharata war was fought at the end of theDvapara Yuga are foolish.[57]
(TheMahābhārata) cloaks itself in mythology, but I don't think the text itself should be called a myth...it's anitihasa but in the terms that the tradition understood history. It is akāvya, obviously, it is ashastra, and it is a teaching method for how to live in the world - how to respect your elders, how to respect thebrahmins, and so on. So in answer to the question "Is it history or mythology?" I would say yes, it is both of those things, and a great deal more.[58]
Synopsis
Ganesha writes theMahabharata upon Vyasa's dictation.
The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne ofHastinapura, the kingdom ruled by theKuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are theKaurava and thePandava. Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family,Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger thanYudhishthira, the eldest Pandava. BothDuryodhana andYudhishthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.
The struggle culminates in theKurukshetra War, in which thePandavas are ultimately victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.
TheMahābhārata itself ends with the death ofKrishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age ofKali Yuga, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality, and virtue.
The older generations
Shantanu falls in love with Satyavati, the fisherwoman. Painting byRaja Ravi Varma.
King Janamejaya's ancestor,Shantanu, the king ofHastinapura, had a short-lived marriage with the goddessGanga and had a son, Devavrata (later to be calledBhishma, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when KingShantanu goes hunting, he seesSatyavati, the daughter of the chief of fishermen, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma,Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honoring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.
Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati,Chitrāngada andVichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies.Vichitravirya, the younger son, rulesHastinapura. Meanwhile, the King ofKāśī arranges aswayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapura. To arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princessesAmba,Ambika, andAmbalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.
The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry the king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry the king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. She vows to kill him in her next life. Later she is reborn to KingDrupada asShikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help ofArjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.
When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first sonVyasa, born to her from a previous union with the sageParashara, tofather children with the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her sonDhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her sonPandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'[59]). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son,Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest figures in theMahabharata. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.
When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, toKunti andMadri. Dhritarashtra marriesGandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself for the rest of her life so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brotherShakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However, the arrow hits the sageKindama, who was engaged in a sexual act in the guise of a deer. He curses Pandu that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.
Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by SageDurvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to askDharma, the god of justice,Vayu, the god of the wind, andIndra, the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons,Yudhishthira,Bhima, andArjuna, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queenMadri, who bears the twinsNakula andSahadeva through theAshwini twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in lovemaking, and Pandu dies. Madri commits suicide out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as thePandava brothers.
Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons, and one daughter—Duhsala—throughGandhari,[60] all born after the birth of Yudhishthira. These are theKaurava brothers, the eldest beingDuryodhana, and the secondDushasana. Other Kaurava brothers includeVikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to theKurukshetra war.
Lakshagraha (the house of lac)
After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur. Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers.
Shakuni, Duryodhana, and Dushasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architectPurochana to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, intending to set it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle,Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They escape to safety through the tunnel and go into hiding. During this time, Bhima marries ademonessHidimbi and has a sonGhatotkacha. Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.[61]
Whilst they were in hiding, the Pandavas learn of aswayamvara which is taking place for the hand of thePāñcāla princessDraupadī. The Pandavas, disguised asBrahmins, come to witness the event. Meanwhile, Krishna, who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead). The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below. In popular versions, after all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow, Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi who refuses to marry a suta (this has been excised from the Critical Edition of Mahabharata[62][63] as later interpolation[64]). After this, the swayamvara is opened to the Brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi. The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves, thinking it to bealms. Thus, Draupadi ends up being thewife of all five brothers.
Indraprastha
After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited byTakshaka, the king of snakes, and his family. Through hard work, the Pandavas build a new glorious capital for the territory atIndraprastha.
Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister,Subhadra. Yudhishthira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out therājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognized as pre-eminent among kings.
The Pandavas have anew palace built for them, byMaya theDanava.[65] They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond and assumes it is not water and falls in.Bhima,Arjuna, the twins and the servants laugh at him.[66] In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhishthira) who had insulted Duryodhana. Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game on Shakuni's suggestion. This suggestion was accepted by Yudhisthira despite the rest of the Pandavas advising him not to play.
The dice game
Draupadi humiliated
Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed.
Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra calls for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden called asAgyaata Vaasa. If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.
Exile and return
The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. The Pandavas acquire many divine weapons, given by gods, during this period. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of the kingVirata, and they are discovered just after the end of the year.
At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary. However, this negotiation fails, because Duryodhana objected that they were discovered in the 13th year of their exile and the return of their kingdom was not agreed upon. Then the Pandavas fought the Kauravas, claiming their rights over Indraprastha.
A scene from theMahabharata war,Angkor Wat: A black stone relief depicting several men wearing a crown and a dhoti, fighting with spears, swords, and bows. A chariot with half the horse out of the frame is seen in the middle.
Before the battle, Arjuna, noticing that the opposing army includes his cousins and relatives, including his grandfatherBhishma and his teacherDrona, has grave doubts about the fight. He falls into despair and refuses to fight. At this time, Krishna reminds him of his duty as aKshatriya to fight for a righteous cause in the famousBhagavad Gita section of the epic.
Though initially adhering to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonorable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas,Satyaki,Kripa,Ashwatthama,Kritavarma,Yuyutsu and Krishna survive. Yudhisthira becomes king of Hastinapur. All warriors who died in the Kurukshetra war go toswarga.
The end of the Pandavas
Gandhari, blindfolded, supporting Dhrtarashtra and following Kunti when Dhritarashtra became old and infirm and retired to the forest. A miniature painting from a 16th-century manuscript of part of the Razmnama, aPersian translation of theMahabharata
After "seeing" the carnage,Gandhari, who had lost all her sons, cursesKrishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.
The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to theHimalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishthira gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial toArjuna,Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhishthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja) and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.
Arjuna's grandsonParikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.
The reunion
TheMahābhārata mentions thatKarna, the Pandavas, Draupadi and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended tosvarga and "attained the state of thegods", and banded together – "serene and free from anger".[69]
Themes
The god Krishna acts as a charioteer to Arjuna in the battle of the Bhagavad Gita, a section of the Mahabharata. Taken from an illustrated manuscript scroll, 1795 C.E. held in thearchive collection at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
Just war
TheMahābhārata offers one of the first instances of theorizing aboutdharmayuddha, "just war", illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria likeproportionality (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress),just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows),just cause (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded.[70]
Translations, versions and derivative works
Translations
Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with thePandavas andKrishna. Folio from theRazmnama (1761–1763), Persian translation of theMahabharata, commissioned by Mughal emperorAkbar. The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and robes.[71]
The first complete English translation was theVictorian prose version byKisari Mohan Ganguli,[75] published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and byManmatha Nath Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in thepublic domain and is available online.[76][77]
An early poetry translation byRomesh Chunder Dutt and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of theMahābhārata into English verse.[78] A poetic rendering of the full epic into English, done by the poetP. Lal and completed posthumously by his student, was published byWriters Workshop,Calcutta.[79] The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and it is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in theCritical Edition). Dr. Pradip Bhattacharya stated that the P. Lal version is "known in academia as the 'vulgate'".[80] The text is a "transcreation"[81] rather than a traditional translation.[82]
A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from theClay Sanskrit Library, published byNew York University Press. The translation is based not on theCritical Edition but on the version known to the commentatorNīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.
Indian economistBibek Debroy also wrote an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010, and the last two volumes were published in December 2014. Abhinav Agarwal referred to Debroy's translation as "thoroughly enjoyable and impressively scholarly".[82] In a review of the seventh volume, Bhattacharya stated that the translator bridged gaps in the narrative of the Critical Edition, but also noted translation errors.[80] Gautam Chikermane ofHindustan Times wrote that where "both Debroy and Ganguli get tiresome is in the use of adjectives while describing protagonists".[86]
Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on theCritical Edition, is in progress, published byUniversity of Chicago Press. It was initiated byIndologistJ. A. B. van Buitenen (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by several scholars.James L. Fitzgerald translated book 11 and the first half of book 12. David Gitomer is translating book 6, Gary Tubb is translating book 7,Christopher Minkowski is translating book 8,Alf Hiltebeitel is translating books 9 and 10, Fitzgerald is translating the second half of book 12,Patrick Olivelle is translating book 13, and Fred Smith is translating book 14–18.[87][88]
Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at theBhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced theCritical Edition of theMahābhārata, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, over the span of 47 years, followed by theHarivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the text that is usually used in currentMahābhārata studies for reference.[89] This work is sometimes called the "Pune" or "Poona" edition of theMahabharata.
Regional versions
Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include theTamil street theatre,terukkuttu andkattaikkuttu, the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions ofMahābhārata, focusing onDraupadi.[90]
Outside the Indian subcontinent, inIndonesia, a version was developed in ancientJava asKakawin Bhāratayuddha in the 11th century under the patronage of KingDharmawangsa (990–1016)[91] and later it spread to the neighboring island ofBali, which remains a Hindu majority island today. It has become the fertile source for Javanese literature, dance drama (wayang wong), andwayang shadow puppet performances. This Javanese version of theMahābhārata differs slightly from the original Indian version.[note 2] Another notable difference is the inclusion of thePunakawans, the clown servants of the main figures in the storyline. TheseSemar,Petruk, Gareng, and Bagong, who are much-loved by Indonesian audiences.[citation needed] There are also some spin-off episodes developed in ancient Java, such asArjunawiwaha composed in the 11th century.
AKawi version of theMahabharata, of which eight of the eighteenparvas survive, is found on the Indonesian island ofBali. It has been translated into English by Dr.I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi.[92]
Derivative literature
Bhasa, the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in theMarabharata,Urubhanga (Broken Thigh), about the fight betweenDuryodhana andBhima, whileMadhyamavyayoga (The Middle One) set aroundBhima and his son, Ghatotkacha. The first important play of 20th century wasAndha Yug (The Blind Epoch), byDharamvir Bharati, which came in 1955, found inMahabharat, both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent. Starting withEbrahim Alkazi, it was staged by numerous directors.V. S. Khandekar's Marathi novel,Yayati (1960), andGirish Karnad's debut playYayati (1961) are based on the story of KingYayati found in theMahabharat.[93] Bengali writer and playwright,Buddhadeva Bose wrote three plays set in Mahabharat,Anamni Angana,Pratham Partha andKalsandhya.[94]Pratibha Ray wrote anaward winning novel entitledYajnaseni fromDraupadi's perspective in 1984. Later,Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni wrote a similar novel entitledThe Palace of Illusions: A Novel in 2008. Gujarati poetChinu Modi has written long narrative poetryBahuk based on the figureBahuka.[95]Krishna Udayasankar, a Singapore-based Indian author, has written several novels which are modern-day retellings of the epic, most notably the Aryavarta Chronicles Series.Suman Pokhrel wrote asolo play based onRay's novel by personalizing and takingDraupadi alone in the scene.
In 1988,B. R. Chopra created a television series namedMahabharat. It was directed byRavi Chopra,[100] and was televised on India's national television (Doordarshan). The same year asMahabharat was being shown on Doordarshan, that same company's other television show,Bharat Ek Khoj, also directed by Shyam Benegal, showed a 2-episode abbreviation of theMahabharata, drawing from various interpretations of the work, be they sung, danced, or staged. In theWestern world, a well-known presentation of the epic isPeter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered inAvignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie versionThe Mahābhārata.[101] In the late 2013Mahabharat was televised on STAR Plus. It was produced by Swastik Productions Pvt.
TheMahabharata was adapted by the BBC into a nine-part radio drama entitledMahabharata Now. The action is instead updated to modern-day India and, thus, hinges its action less on the fate of an entire kingdom but instead that of a massive conglomerate company.[107]
In folk culture
Every year in theGarhwal region ofUttarakhand, villagers perform thePandav Lila, a ritual re-enactment of episodes from theMahabharata through dancing, singing, and recitation. Thelila is a cultural highlight of the year and is usually performed between November and February. Folk instruments of the region,dhol,damau and two long trumpetsbhankore, accompany the action. The amateur actors often break into a spontaneous dance when they are "possessed" by the spirits of the figures of theMahabharata.[108]
Depiction of wedding procession of Neminatha. The enclosure shows the animals that are to be slaughtered for food for weddings. Overcome with Compassion for animals, Neminatha refused to marry and renounced his kingdom to become a Shramana
Jain versions ofMahābhārata can be found in the variousJain texts likeHarivamsapurana (the story ofHarivamsa)Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious persons),Pandavacharitra (lives ofPandavas) andPandavapurana (stories ofPandavas).[109] From the earlier canonical literature,Antakrddaaśāh (8th cannon) andVrisnidasa (upangagama or secondary canon) contain the stories ofNeminatha (22ndTirthankara), Krishna and Balarama.[110] Prof.Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead, they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of theJain cosmology and rule half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra byBhadrabahu swami (4th–3rd century BCE).[111] According toJain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Prativasudeva.[112] The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha (who is killed by Krishna as Prativasudevas are killed by Vasudevas). Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation asJain monks and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell.[113] In keeping with thelaw of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Prof. Jaini admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. The Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in the hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be reborn as a JainTirthankara and attainliberation.[112] Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha.[114] According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath's marriage with Rajemati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world.[115][116]
Kuru family tree
This shows the line of royal and family succession, not necessarily the parentage. See the notes below for detail.
a:Shantanu was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestor calledKuru. His marriage toGanga preceded his marriage toSatyavati.
b:Pandu andDhritarashtra were fathered byVyasa in theniyoga tradition afterVichitravirya's death. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura were the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively.
c:Karna was born toKunti through her invocation ofSurya, before her marriage toPandu.
e:Duryodhana and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as theirPandava cousins.
f : Although the succession after the Pandavas was through the descendants of Arjuna and Subhadra, it was Yudhishthira and Draupadi who occupied the throne of Hastinapura after the great battle.
The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except forVyasa andBhishma whose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya and Chitrangada who were born after them. The fact thatAmbika andAmbalika are sisters is not shown in the family tree. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna and Yudhishthira, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers.
Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; this includesVidura, half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu.
It has also inspired several works of modernHindi literature, such asRamdhari Singh Dinkar'sRashmirathi, which is a rendition ofMahabharata centered aroundKarna and his conflicts. It was written in 1952, and won the prestigiousJnanpith Award in 1972.
Explanatory notes
^Sadwalekar has two translations in Hindi. To read BORI CE in Hindi specifically, go for the translations he published starting from 1968(BORI was published in 1966).
^For example,Draupadi is only wed toYudhishthira, not to all the Pandava brothers; this might demonstrate ancient Javanese opposition topolyandry.[citation needed] The author later added some female characters to be wed to the Pandavas, for example, Arjuna is described as having many wives and consorts next toSubhadra. Another difference is thatShikhandini does not change her sex and remains a woman, to be wed toArjuna, and takes the role of a warrior princess during the war.[citation needed] Another twist is thatGandhari is described as an antagonistic character who hates the Pandavas: her hate is out of jealousy because, during Gandhari'sswayamvara, she was in love with Pandu but was later wed to his blind elder brother instead, whom she did not love, so she blindfolded herself as a protest.[citation needed]
^Oldenberg, Hermann (1922).Das Mahabharata: seine Entstehung, sein Inhalt, seine Form (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.LCCN24000855.OCLC4878979.[page needed]
^18 books, 18 chapters of theBhagavadgita and the Narayaniya each, corresponding to the 18 days of the battle and the 18 armies (Mbh. 5.152.23)
^The Spitzer Manuscript (Beitrage zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens), Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2004. It is one of the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts found on theSilk Road and part of the estate of Dr. Moritz Spitzer.
^Schlingloff, Dieter (1969). "The Oldest Extant Parvan-List of the Mahābhārata".Journal of the American Oriental Society.89 (2):334–338.doi:10.2307/596517.JSTOR596517.
^Christian Lassen, in hisIndische Alterthumskunde, supposed that the reference is ultimate to Dhritarashtra's sorrows, the laments of Gandhari and Draupadi, and the valor of Arjuna and Suyodhana or Karna (cited approvingly inMax Duncker,The History of Antiquity (trans.Evelyn Abbott, London 1880), vol. 4,p. 81). This interpretation is endorsed in such standard references asAlbrecht Weber'sHistory of Indian Literature but has sometimes been repeated as fact instead of as interpretation.
^TheAshvamedhika-parva is also preserved in a separate version, theJaimini-Bharata (Jaiminiya-Ashvamedha) where the frame dialogue is replaced, the narration being attributed toJaimini, another disciple of Vyasa. . It describes how Arjuna alone conquered the whole earth once again. This version contains far more devotional material (related to Krishna) than the standard epic and probably dates to the 12th century. It has some regional versions, the most popular being theKannada one by Devapurada Annama Lakshmisha (16th century).The MahabharataArchived 6 November 2006 at theWayback Machine[citation needed]
^In discussing the dating question, historian A. L. Basham says: "According to the most popular later tradition the Mahabharata War took place in 3102 BCE, which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century BCE, but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century BCE; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the Brahmana literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier." Basham, p. 40, citing HC Raychaudhuri,Political History of Ancient India, pp.27ff.
^M Witzel,Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state, EJVS vol.1 no.4 (1995); also in B. Kölver (ed.),Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India, München, R. Oldenbourg, 1997, p.27-52
^A.D. Pusalker,History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol I, Chapter XIV, p.273
^FE Pargiter,Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p.180. He shows estimates of the average as 47, 50, 31, and 35 for various versions of the lists.
^Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.246, who summarize as follows: "Astronomical calculations favor 15th century BCE as the date of the war while the Puranic data place it in the 10th/9th century BCE. Archaeological evidence points towards the latter." (p.254)
^"Sabha parva". Sacred-texts.com.Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved13 July 2015.
^Nath Soni, Lok (2000).The Cattle and the Stick An Ethnographic Profile of the Raut of Chhattisgarh. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 16.ISBN9788185579573.
^Shome, Alo (2000).Krishna Charitra: The Essence of Bankim Chandra. Pustak Mahal. p. 104.ISBN8122310354.
^Several editions of theKisari Mohan Ganguli translation of theMahabharata incorrectly cite the publisher, Pratap Chandra Roy, as the translator and this error has been propagated into secondary citations. See the publisher's preface to the current Munshiram Manoharlal edition for an explanation.
^Helen, Johnson (2009) [1931]. Muni Samvegayashvijay Maharaj (ed.).Trisastiśalākāpurusacaritra of Hemacandra: The Jain Saga. Vol. Part II. Baroda: Oriental Institute.ISBN978-81-908157-0-3. refer story of Neminatha
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