| Magnus Barefoot | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Silverpenning struck sometime during the reign of Magnus | |||||
| King of Norway | |||||
| Reign | September 1093 – 24 August 1103 | ||||
| Predecessor | Olaf III | ||||
| Successor | Sigurd Magnusson,Eystein Magnusson andOlaf Magnusson | ||||
| Co-ruler | Haakon Magnusson (until 1095) | ||||
| King of Dublin | |||||
| Reign | 1102–1103 | ||||
| Predecessor | Domnall Gerrlámhach | ||||
| Successor | Domnall Gerrlámhach | ||||
| Born | 1073 Norway | ||||
| Died | 24 August 1103(1103-08-24) (aged 29–30) nearRiver Quoile, Downpatrick, Ulster, Ireland | ||||
| Burial | near St. Patrick's Church, Downpatrick | ||||
| Spouse | Margaret Fredkulla | ||||
| Illegitimate children more... | |||||
| |||||
| House | Hardrada | ||||
| Father | Olaf III of Norway | ||||
| Mother | Tora?;disputed (seebelow) | ||||
Magnus III Olafsson (Old Norse:Magnús Óláfsson,Norwegian:Magnus Olavsson; 1073 – 24 August 1103), better known asMagnus Barefoot (Old Norse:Magnús berfœttr, Norwegian:Magnus Berrføtt),[1] was theKing of Norway from 1093 until his death in 1103. His reign was marked by aggressive military campaigns and conquest, particularly in the Norse-dominated parts of theBritish Isles, where he extended his rule to theKingdom of the Isles andDublin.
As the only son of KingOlaf Kyrre, Magnus wasproclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father's death in 1093. In the north his claim was contested by his cousin,Haakon Magnusson (son of KingMagnus Haraldsson), and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakon's death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin's death, but the insurrection was short-lived. After securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around theIrish Sea from 1098 to 1099. He raided throughOrkney, theHebrides andMann (theNorthern and Southern Isles), and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king. Based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty ofGalloway. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, gaining the support ofAnglesey (and theGwynedd) after aiding against theinvading Norman forces from the island.
Following his return to Norway, Magnus led campaigns intoDalsland andVästergötland in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish kingEric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marryMargaret, daughter of the Swedish kingInge Stenkilsson. In return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his final western campaign in 1102, and may have sought to conquer Ireland. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish kingMuirchertach Ua Briain ofMunster, who recognised Magnus's control of Dublin. Under unclear circumstances, while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway, Magnus was killed in an ambush by theUlaid the next year; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death.
Into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as aViking warrior rather than a medieval monarch,[2] Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad, and he may in some respects be considered the final Viking king.[3]
Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norsesagas and chronicles, which began appearing during the 12th century. The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chroniclesHistoria de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium byTheodoric the Monk and the anonymousÁgrip af Nóregskonungasögum (or simplyÁgrip) from the 1180s and theIcelandic sagasHeimskringla (bySnorri Sturluson),Morkinskinna andFagrskinna, which date to about the 1220s. While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, which included contemporary accounts.
Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of KingOlaf Kyrre.[4] His mother's identity is uncertain; she is identified as Tora Arnesdatter (daughter of otherwise-unknown Arne Låge) inMorkinskinna andFagrskinna, as Tora Joansdatter inHeimskringla,Hrokkinskinna andHryggjarstykki[5] and an unnamed daughter of "Ragnvald jarl" fromGodøy,Sunnmøre in the genealogical textAf en gl. ætleg (commonly known asSunnmørsættleggen).[6] The historical consensus (includingP. A. Munch[5] andClaus Krag)[3] has favoured Tora Arnesdatter, but the other claims have also gained support. Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarl[7] (who has been identified asRognvald Brusason,Earl of Orkney by Ola Kvalsund),[8] while historian Randi Helene Førsund has considered Tora Joansdatter more likely.[5]
Magnus grew up among thehird (royal retinue) of his father inNidaros (modernTrondheim),de facto capital of Norway at the time. His father's cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus. In his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, KingHarald Hardrada, than to his father (who bore thebynameKyrre: "the Peaceful").[9] According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as "Magnus the Tall".[10] Magnus's more-common byname, "Barefoot" or "Barelegs", was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting theGaelic dress of the Irish and Scots: a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare.[3][11] Another version (by Danish historianSaxo Grammaticus) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet,[12] while a third explains that he rode barefoot (like the Irish).[11] Due to Magnus's aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad, he also had the nicknamestyrjaldar-Magnús[3] ("Warrior Magnus"[11] or "Magnus the Strife-lover").[10]
Norway had experienced a long period of peace during the reign of Magnus's father, Olaf. Magnus may have been present when Olaf died inRånrike,Båhuslen (southeastern Norway) in September 1093 and was probablyproclaimed king at theBorgarting,[3] thething (assembly) of the adjacent region ofViken later that month.[13] When Magnus became king, he already had a network of support among the Norwegian aristocracy. Although sources are unclear about the first year of his reign, it is apparent that Magnus's focus was on the west (towards the British Isles). Since conditions were chaotic in Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles since the death ofThorfinn the Mighty, this provided Magnus an opportunity to intervene in local power struggles.[14] According to some accounts, he made his first expedition west in 1093–94 (or 1091–92),[15] helpingScottish kingDonald Bane to conquerEdinburgh and theScottish throne[16] and possibly gaining control of the Southern Isles (Suðreyjar) in return.[17] It is unclear if this early expedition took place, since it is not directly referenced in early reliable sources or the sagas.[18]
Magnus was opposed by his cousin Haakon Magnusson, son of King Olaf's brother and short-lived co-ruler KingMagnus Haraldsson, who claimed half the kingdom. Haakon was proclaimed king in theUplands and at theØyrating, the thing ofTrøndelag (in central Norway).[19] According to Førsund, Haakon took control of the entire portion of the kingdom once held by his father (also including theFrostating—the thing ofHålogaland innorthern Norway—and theGulating—the thing ofwestern Norway).[20] Haakon secured support by relieving farmers of taxes and duties (including taxes dating back to the Danish rule ofSweyn Knutsson during the early 1030s),[3] while Magnus pursued costly policies and demanded lengthy military service.[21] After Magnus settled at the new royal estate in Nidaros for the winter of 1094–95, Haakon also travelled to the city and took up residence at the old royal estate.[22] Their relationship became increasingly tense, culminating when Haakon saw Magnus'slongships fully rigged at sea. Haakon summoned the Øyrating in response, leading Magnus to sail southwards. Haakon attempted to intercept Magnus by travelling south to Viken by land (over the mountains ofDovrefjell),[23] but he died unexpectedly while hunting in February 1095.[24]
The strongman behind Haakon's monarchy had been his foster-fatherTore Tordsson ("Steigar-Tore"), who refused to recognise Magnus as king after Haakon's death. With Egil Aslaksson and other noblemen, he had the otherwise-unknown Sweyn Haraldsson set up as apretender.[3] Although later sagas maintain that Sweyn was Danish, some modern historians have speculated that he may have been a son of Harald Hardrada.[3] The revolt was based in the Uplands, but also gained support from noblemen elsewhere in the country.[25] After several weeks of fighting, Magnus captured Tore and his supporters and had them hanged on the island of Vambarholm (outsideHamnøy,Lofoten, in northern Norway). Magnus was reportedly furious because he could not pardon Egil, a potentially useful, young and resourceful nobleman. As king, his honour would only allow a pardon if other noblemen pleaded for Egil's life; this did not happen.[26]
Magnus's final domestic dispute was with the noble Sveinke Steinarsson, who refused to recognise him as king. Although Sveinke reduced piracy in Viken, he was forced into exile for three years after negotiating with Magnus's men. Since piracy increased soon after Sveinke's departure (possibly encouraged by Sveinke himself), Magnus met him in the Danish province ofHalland to request his return to Norway. They reconciled; Sveinke became a loyal supporter of Magnus, now the undisputed king of Norway.[27]
Since the Norse sources (including theskaldic verses which were the sagas' main sources) chiefly describe war-related matters, less is known about other events during the reigns of the early Norwegian kings. Snorri, for instance, wrote fifteen pages about Magnus and only two pages about Magnus's peaceful father Olaf Kyrre (despite Olaf's reign lasting almost three times longer than Magnus's). Modern historians have noted that this probably has made the image of kings like Magnus Barefoot one-sided (in Magnus's case, skewed towards his deeds as a warrior).[29]
Magnus's rule was generally marked by Norway's increasing similarity to other European kingdoms. Royal rule became established, and he consolidated power through a network of powerful noblemen (some of whom were relatives); church organisation also developed.[3] The Nordic bishops belonged to theArchdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen until a year after Magnus's death (when theArchdiocese of Lund was formed); priests and bishops were largely foreigners fromEngland andGermany. In reality, however, Magnus ruled the church in Norway.[30]
Throughnumismatics, it is known that minting reform began during Magnus's reign. The reform restored silver content in coins to around 90 percent, the level at Harald Hardrada's 1055 reform (Haraldsslåtten) which reduced silver content to about 30 percent (the remainder of the coin was copper). Coin size in Magnus's reform was reduced to .45 gram, half the previous weight. Although the silver value of a coin remained about the same, copper was not needed in coins.[31]
Magnus sought to re-establish Norwegian influence around theIrish Sea. He attempted to install vassal kingIngemund in the Southern Isles in 1097, but the latter was killed in a revolt.[32][33] It is unclear what Magnus's ultimate ambitions were, and the significance of his campaign has been downplayed by modern English historians. English chroniclerWilliam of Malmesbury believed that Magnus sought to capture the throne fromWilliam II of England (in common with the ambitions of his grandfather, Harald Hardrada).[32] Historians have speculated that he wanted to establish an empire which included Scotland and Ireland, although most modern Norwegian and Scottish historians believe his chief aim was simply to control the Norse communities around the Irish Sea.[34] While he may have been influenced by Ingemund's murder, theOrkneyinga saga claims that Magnus was persuaded by a son of an Orkney earl,Haakon Paulsson, who wanted an earldom for himself.[35][36] It is also possible that Magnus wished to provide a realm outside Norway for his eight-year-old sonSigurd, who accompanied him.[37] Magnus sailed into the Western Sea in 1098, arriving inOrkney with a large fleet. TheChronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles claim that he had 160 ships, but English chroniclerOrderic Vitalis states that his fleet consisted of 60 ships. Based on this, P. A. Munch suggests an initial fleet of 160 ships, of which 100 were from theleidang (public levy) and returned shortly after arrival; the fleet accompanying Magnus southward in the campaigns consisted of 60 royal and baronial ships.[38] According to Førsund, the low estimate of 120 men per ship means 8,000 men in the royal and baronial ships and 12,000 from theleidang ships. However, many historians believe that ship numbers in old naval campaign accounts are exaggerated.[39]
After his arrival, Magnus began negotiations with Scottish and Irish kings about thehird and control of land in Scotland, Ireland and the surrounding islands.[40] Upon arriving in Orkney, he sent the earlsPaul and Erlend Thorfinnsson away to Norway as prisoners[32] on aleidang ship, took their sons Haakon Paulsson,Magnus Erlendsson and Erling Erlendsson as hostages and installed his own son Sigurd as earl.[41] Magnus then raided Scotland, the Southern Isles andLewis. Meeting no significant opposition, he continued pillaging the Hebridean islands ofUist,Skye,Tiree,Mull andIslay, and the peninsula ofKintyre;Iona was visited, but not pillaged.[37][42][43] Magnus is also recorded as warring in Sanday, although the exact location is unclear (there are three islands with that name in the region).[44] On entering the Irish Sea, he lost threeleidang ships and 120 men inUlster. Magnus then continued toMann, where the earlÓttar fell in a violent battle;[45] he also chased (or captured)Lagman Godredsson,King of the Isles.[3][32][37] Mann came under Norwegian control, and Magnus and his men stayed on the island for a time. During his time there, he organised Norwegian immigration to the island and had several forts and houses built (or rebuilt) using timber fromGalloway on the Scottish mainland.[46] This implied he had subdued part of that region too,[47] reducing its chieftains to tributaries.[32]
Magnus may have intended to invade Ireland next, only to find he had overextended himself.[47] He may have been approached byGruffudd ap Cynan,King of Gwynedd, who had been driven to Ireland by theNorman earlsHugh of Montgomery andHugh d'Avranches.[48] With six ships (according to Orderic Vitalis),[47] Magnus steered towardsAnglesey inGwynedd,Wales. Appearing off the coast atPuffin Island, he interrupted aNorman victory celebration after their defeat of the Gwynedd king[49]—for the Welsh, "so opportunely it was ascribed to divine providence" according to historian Rosemary Power (although Magnus had not necessarily intended to side with them).[47] In the ensuing battle (known as theBattle of Anglesey Sound,[49] according to Power "the most widely reported event in the history of Magnus"),[47] Magnus shot Hugh of Montgomery dead with an arrow through his eye[49] and defeated the Norman forces.[50] The sources indicate that Magnus regretted killing Montgomery, suggesting that he may have been interested in an alliance with the Normans.[51] He abruptly returned to Mann with his men, leaving the Norman army weak and demoralized.[49] After this battle, Anglesey was considered the southern border of Norway. Gruffudd ap Cynan soon returned to the island, awarding Magnus gifts and honour[52] (which may indicate that Gwynedd had capitulated).[50][53] The extension of Magnus's kingdom probably began to concern the English, who rememberedthe invasion of Magnus's grandfather Harald Hardrada in 1066, war with Danish kingSweyn II Estridson in 1069–70 and the threat of invasion byCnut IV in 1085.[50]
In Scotland internal fighting continued between rival kings, although KingEdgar had gained a slight advantage. Perhaps fearing to meet Magnus in battle after the internecine strife, according to the sagas Edgar—mistakenly called Malcolm—told Magnus he would renounce all Scottish claims to islands west of Scotland in exchange for peace. Magnus accepted the offer, which reportedly gave him every island a ship could reach with its rudder set. He gained recognition of his rule in the Southern Isles, including Kintyre after demonstrating that it should be included by sitting at the rudder of his ship as it was dragged across the narrowisthmus atTarbert.[54][55][56] HistorianRichard Oram has claimed that references to a formal agreement with the Scottish king is a "post-Norwegian civil war confection" designed to legitimise the agenda ofHaakon IV Haakonsson.[57] Rosemary Power agrees with the Norse sources that a formal agreement with the Scots was probably concluded,[56] and Seán Duffy notes that Edgar "happily ceded" the isles to Magnus since he had "little or no authority there in any case".[53] Magnus spent the winter in the Hebrides (continuing to fortify the islands), while many of his men returned to Norway.[56] There may have been talks at this time of Magnus marryingMatilda, daughter of late Scottish kingMalcolm III Canmore, but no marriage took place.[58] Magnus returned to Norway a year later during the summer of 1099, although many of the islands he had conquered (such as Anglesey) were only nominally under Norwegian control.[59]
After returning to Norway, Magnus turned east. By claiming an ancient border between Norway and Sweden, he set his course for the Swedish provinces ofDalsland andVästergötland in late 1099. In Magnus's view, the border with Sweden should be set further east: at theGöta älv river, through theVänern lake and north to the province ofVärmland. He claimed all land west of Vänern (chiefly Dalsland).[60] Swedish kingInge Stenkilsson refuted the claim, and Magnus began a campaign in response. He raided his way through the forest villages, and Inge began amassing an army. When advised by his men to retreat, Magnus became more aggressive; he believed that once begun, a campaign should never be aborted.[61] In a surprise nighttime attack, Magnus assaulted Swedish forces east of Göta älv at Fuxerna (nearLilla Edet). After defeating the Swedes at Fuxerna, he conquered part of Västergötland.[62] According to askald, Magnus conquered "fifteenhundreds from theGeats".[3] He had a wooden fort, surrounded by a moat, built on the island ofKållandsö in the southern portion of Vänern. Before returning to Norway, Magnus left 300 men on the island for the winter (led by Finn Skofteson and Sigurd Ullstreng).[63]
According to Randi Helene Førsund, the Norwegians in Kållandsö appear to have been characterized by arrogance (perhaps due to their successes under Magnus) and taunted the Swedish king for taking so long to arrive. After newly formed ice connected the island to the mainland, Inge arrived with about 3,000 men. Although he offered several times to allow the Norwegians to return home in peace (with their plunder and possessions), Inge's offers were rejected. The Swedes finally attacked, burning the fort. The Norwegians were spared and allowed to return home, after being beaten with sticks and surrendering all their possessions.[64] Angry at the humiliating defeat, Magnus planned revenge. He entered Sweden the following year, reconquering the same areas. During the hasty campaign Magnus and his men were ambushed by Swedish forces and forced to flee back to their ships, suffering heavy losses.[65] The war continued until 1100 or 1101.[66]
Danish kingEric Evergood, concerned that the conflict would escalate, began peace talks between the two kings. Relations had been strained between Denmark and Norway after Magnus's 1096 raids into Halland, and Eric feared that the conflict might spill over into his own country. The three Scandinavian kings eventually agreed to negotiate peace in the border area near Göta älv. After a constructive meeting, they agreed to preserve ancestral borders; by marrying Inge's daughterMargaret (who acquired the bynameFredkulla: "Maiden of Peace"),[67] Magnus acquired the lands he claimed on behalf of his ancestors.[68] Since the marriage was childless, Dalsland never became established as a Norwegian province[3] and was returned to Sweden after his death.[69]
Magnus again set his course for Ireland in 1101 or 1102,[70] this time probably with a greater army than he had in his previous campaign.[71] One of his biggest challenges was the number of petty kings and alliances on the island.[72] Irish sources maintain that Magnus came to "take Ireland", "invade Ireland" or "besiege Ireland".[73] He received reinforcements from Orkney on his way to Mann, where he set up a base to survey conditions.[74] Tensions ran high between Magnus and the king ofMunster andHigh King of Ireland,Muirchertach Ua Briain (Mýrjartak), who was struggling with his rivalDomnall Ua Lochlainn.[75] Magnus may have tested the situation in 1101, when unnamed sailors are said to have raidedScattery Island (near Muirchertach's base).[12] After his arrival at Mann, Irish sources describe Magnus as agreeing to "a year's peace" with the Irish (suggesting enmity; such agreements were diplomatic devices, usually negotiated between two sides in war).[73] The marriage agreement described in other sources was part of the treaty;[76] Magnus's son, Sigurd, married Muirchertach's daughterBjaðmunjo. On their wedding day, Magnus named Sigurd his co-king[77] and put him in charge of the western lands.[76] Muirchertach also recognised Magnus's control overDublin andFingal.[76]
Around the same time Muirchertach married a daughter ofArnulf of Montgomery, brother of Hugh (who was killed by Magnus in 1098).[78] The account inMorkinskinna concerning a "foreign knight" named "Giffarðr", who appeared at the court of Magnus before his Swedish campaign, is suggested by Rosemary Power as evidence that Magnus may have conspired with the NormanWalter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham (or a family member) in the revolt againstHenry I of England.[12][79] According to Orderic Vitalis, Magnus left treasure with a wealthy citizen inLincoln which was confiscated by King Henry after Magnus's death. This treasure could have been paid by Norman earls for Magnus's support, and possibly arranged by the Giffarðr who is said to have visited Magnus's court in the sagas. This could have provided Magnus with a lucrative return for his costly western campaigns, which were unpopular in Norway at the time.[78]
Muirchertach was skilled in diplomacy, and negotiation with the dowries of his daughters may have been part of a political game. While he may not have intended to honour his agreements with Magnus (or others), he needed the latter's assistance to crush Domnall.[80] Magnus and Muirchertach went on joint raiding expeditions after the peace agreement, only interrupted by the winter of 1102–03. The sagas claim that Magnus wintered inConnacht, but since Connacht is incorrectly claimed to be Muirchertach's kingdom[81] the location was corrected toKincora, Munster by modern historians.[76][82] Rosemary Power considered it more likely that Magnus would have kept his fleet near Dublin.[78] Magnus was probably allied with Muirchertach during his campaigns against Domnall and theCenél nEógain in 1103, but (in contrast to the Norse sources) Irish sources (theAnnals of Ulster andAnnals of the Four Masters) do not describe their campaigns as successful.[83] On 5 August 1103, Muirchertach unsuccessfully tried to subdue Domnall in the Battle of Mag Coba.[84] Magnus did not take part, but his Dublin subjects fought with Muirchertach.[84] Since Magnus was closing in on the Irish throne, Muirchertach may have wanted him out of the way.[82] According toMorkinskinna andHeimskringla, the two agreed that Muirchertach was to bring Magnus and his men cattle provisions for their return to Norway; as this dragged on past the agreed time, Magnus became suspicious that the Irish planned an attack. He gathered his men onSt. Bartholomew's Day (or the day before, according toÁgrip), 24 August 1103, and ventured into the country.[85] It is possible that Magnus and his men made an incautious landing to raid cattle,[84][86] or the Ulaid mistook the Norwegians for cattle-raiding Hebrideans.[87] Alternatively, Muirchertach may have ordered the Ulaid to bring provisions to Magnus, inciting the Ulaid to ambush the Norwegians.[88]
"King Magnus had a helmet on his head; a red shield, in which was inlaid a gilded lion; and was girt with the sword ofLegbit, of which the hilt was of tooth (ivory), and handgrip wound about with gold thread; and the sword was extremely sharp. In his hand he had a short spear, and a red silk short cloak, over his coat, on which, both before and behind, was embroidered a lion in yellow silk; and all men acknowledged that they never had seen a brisker, statelier man."[89]
Norse sources describe a large force emerging from hiding places in an ambush. The Norwegian forces were taken by surprise, and were not in battle order. Magnus attempted to assert control over his disordered army, ordering part of his force to seize secure ground and use archery fire to slow the Irish. In the melee Magnus was pierced by a spear through both thighs above the knees but he fought on, attempting to get his men back to the level campsite. An axe-wielding Irishman charged him, striking a lethal blow to his neck.[90] When his men said that he proceeded incautiously in his campaigns, Magnus is reported to have responded "Kings are made for honour, not for long life";[91] he was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad.[3]
Perhaps betrayed by Muirchertach, Magnus may also have been betrayed by his own men (in particular the contingent of nobleman Torgrim Skinnluve from the Uplands, who fled to the ships during the battle). It is possible that Torgrim and his men may have been directed by powerful men in Norway, who wanted Magnus removed from the Norwegian throne. More Irishmen than Norwegians fell in the battle, according to Snorri Sturluson, and Magnus's reign could have been different if Torgrim and his men had fought as directed.[92] Magnus's son Sigurd returned to Norway without his child bride after his father's defeat, and direct Norwegian control in the region came to an end. Although Norwegian influence remained, no Norwegian king returned for more than 150 years.[84]
Magnus married Margaret Fredkulla, daughter of Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson, as part of the peace agreement of 1101. Their marriage did not produce any children. His three sons (who succeeded him as king) were born to different women, and he had two known daughters by unidentified women:[93]
Years after Magnus's death, other men came forward claiming to be his sons; however, it is impossible to ascertain the veracity of these claims:[94]
Magnus probably died in the vicinity of theRiver Quoile.[95] According to theChronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles, Magnus was "buried near the Church of St Patrick, in Down".[96] About two miles (1.2 km) south of the cathedral onHorse Island is a mound which became known as Magnus's Grave after its identification on an 1859 map attributed to Danish archaeologistJens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae. Snorri Sturluson's description of the marshy and difficult terrain where Magnus and his men were attacked fits the conditions in and around Horse Island, making it a strong candidate for the burial site. According to Finbar McCormick, the people who ambushed Magnus may not have wanted a Christian burial for him and his men, instead burying them near where they had been slain.[97] The Downpatrick runestone monument marking the site was erected in March 2003 to mark the 900th anniversary of his death.[98] The burial site is largely only accessible via the heritage railway in Downpatrick; ahalt overlooking thebarrow and runestone has been carved by James Higgins and erected by Philip Campbell,[99] local viking history enthusiast, chairman and founder of the Magnus Viking Association and the Ballydugan Medieval Settlement which is located a short distance from the Runestone on the Drumcullan Road.
Magnus was succeeded peacefully by his three sons:Sigurd,Eystein andOlaf.[3] Near the end of Sigurd's reign (he having outlived his brothers) during the late 1120s, the previously unknownHarald Gille came to Norway from the west claiming to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and legitimate successor to the kingdom. Sigurd recognised Harald as his brother (and successor) after Harald walked uninjured over nine burning ploughshares in atrial by ordeal, and he was proclaimed king after Sigurd's death in 1130 with Sigurd's sonMagnus Sigurdsson.[100] Since Harald was accompanied by his mother to Norway, Sigurd may have recognised a former lover of his father.[101]
Relations between Harald and Magnus Sigurdsson soured, and several years later Harald had Magnus mutilated and deposed (hence his byname "the Blind"). Soon afterwards, Harald was murdered by another pretender:Sigurd Slembe, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and had been outlawed by Harald.[100] After Harald's death Slembe allied himself with Magnus the Blind, but they were defeated by chieftains loyal to Harald Gille's family in theBattle of Holmengrå. Magnus was killed during the battle; Sigurd was captured, tortured and executed. This began what would become the century-longNorwegian civil-war era.[100]
The earliest-known native Irishman to have been named Magnus may have been the son of Muirchertach's greatest rival, Domnall Ua Lochlainn;[76] Magnus became a name among the Ulaid during the 12th century.[86] According toMorkinskinna, tribute from Ireland was received in Norway as late as about twelve years after Magnus's death.[101]
Magnus became the subject of at least two Gaelic ballads as the character Manus Mór. In the best-known version, he returns to Norway after an expedition to the west; he is killed in the second version. The different versions are probably derived from Magnus's two expeditions.[102] There are also traditions concerning Magnus in Scotland in legends, poems and local history.[103]
In modern times, a "Magnus Barelegs festival" has been held near Downpatrick at Delamont Country park bi-annually. Traditionally held on the last weekend of August every second year (27 and 28 August 2022) it is organised, funded and carried out by the Magnus Viking Association.[104] There is a beer named after his sword,Legbiter.[103] In Norway, according to Førsund, Magnus has "been reduced to a sigh" in history books; little remains to commemorate him.[103] When King Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Men ofUlster, his sword was retrieved and sent home.[105]
Primary sources
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Magnus Barefoot Cadet branch of theFairhair dynasty Born: 1073 Died: 24 August 1103 | ||
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| Preceded by | King of Norway 1093–1103 withHaakon Magnusson (1093–1095) | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | King of the Isles 1098–1102 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | King of Dublin 1102–1103 | Succeeded by |
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