Thefactual accuracy of parts of this article (those related to lead, and throughout)may be compromised due to out-of-date information. The reason given is: article fails to address, except obliquely and sporadically, the surpassing and well-documented impact of the industry's print-to-digital transition, which effects the whole of this article. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(January 2025)
Amagazine is aperiodical publication, print or digital, generally produced on a regular schedule, that contains any of a variety of subject-oriented textual and visualcontent forms. Magazines are generally financed byadvertising,purchase price, prepaidsubscriptions, or by a combination of the three. They are categorised by their frequency of publication (i.e., as weeklies, monthlies, quarterlies, etc.), their target audiences (e.g., women's and trade magazines), their subjects of focus (e.g., popular science and religious), and their tones or approach (e.g., works of satire or humor). Appearance on the cover of print magazines has historically been understood to convey a place of honor or distinction to an individual or event.[not verified in body]
The etymology of the word "magazine" suggests derivation from theArabicmakhāzin (مخازن), thebroken plural ofmakhzan (مخزن) meaning "depot, storehouse" (originally military storehouse); that comes to English viaMiddle Frenchmagasin and Italianmagazzino.[1] In its original sense, the word "magazine" referred to a storage space or device.[1]
This sectionneeds expansion with: definitions that are sourced, so as to move the subsection away from WP:OR and editor perspective/opinion. You can help byadding to it.(January 2025)
In the case of written publication, it refers to a collection ofwrittenarticles; hence, magazine publications share the moniker with storage units for military equipment such asgunpowder,artillery andfirearm magazines, and in French and Russian (adopted from the French, asмагазин),retailers such asdepartment stores.[2]
In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a per-issue basis or by subscription, where an annual fee or monthly price is paid and issues are sent by post to readers. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics.[3][4]
This means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, on airlines, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed, and not who reads them.[citation needed]
This is the model used by many trade magazines (industry-based periodicals) distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. Because of costs (e.g., printing and postage) associated with the medium of print, publishers may not distribute free copies to everyone who requests one (unqualified leads); instead, they operate under controlled circulation, deciding who may receive free subscriptions based on each person's qualification as a member of the trade (and likelihood of buying, for example, likelihood of having corporate purchasing authority, as determined by job title). This allows a high level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertiser's target audience,[5] and it avoids wasted printing and distribution expenses. This latter model was widely used before the rise of theWorld Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, includingComputer Weekly andComputing, and in finance,Waters Magazine. For the global media industry, an example would beVideoAge International.[citation needed]
The earliest example of magazines wasErbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, which was launched in 1663 in Germany.[6]The Gentleman's Magazine, first published in 1741 in London was the first general-interest magazine.[7]Edward Cave, who editedThe Gentleman's Magazine under the pen name "Sylvanus Urban", was the first to use the term "magazine", on the analogy of a military storehouse,[8] the quote being: "a monthly collection, to treasure up as in a magazine".[9] Founded byHerbert Ingram in 1842,The Illustrated London News was the firstillustrated weekly news magazine.[7]
The oldest consumer magazine still in print isThe Scots Magazine,[10] which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totalling over 90 years weaken that claim.Lloyd's List was founded in Edward Lloyd's England coffee shop in 1734; although its online platform is still updated daily, it has not been published as a printed magazine since 2013, when it ended print publication after 274 years.[11]
Under theAncien Régime, the most prominent magazines wereMercure de France,Journal des sçavans, founded in 1665 for scientists, andGazette de France, founded in 1631.Jean Loret was one of France's first journalists. He disseminated the weekly news of music, dance and Parisian society from 1650 until 1665 in verse, in what he called agazette burlesque, assembled in three volumes ofLa Muse historique (1650, 1660, 1665). The French press lagged a generation behind the British, for they catered to the needs of the aristocracy, while the newer British counterparts were oriented toward the middle and working classes.[12][non-primary source needed]
Periodicals were censored by the central government inParis. They were not totally quiescent politically—often they criticized Church abuses and bureaucratic ineptitude. They supported the monarchy and they played at most a small role in stimulating the revolution.[13][page needed] During the Revolution, new periodicals played central roles as propaganda organs for various factions.Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793) was the most prominent editor. HisL'Ami du peuple advocated vigorously for the rights of the lower classes against the enemies of the people Marat hated; it closed when he was assassinated. After 1800 Napoleon reimposed strict censorship.[14][page needed]
Magazines flourished after Napoleon left in 1815. Most were based in Paris and most emphasized literature, poetry and stories. They served religious, cultural and political communities. In times of political crisis they expressed and helped shape the views of their readership and thereby were major elements in the changing political culture.[15][page needed] For example, there were eight Catholic periodicals in 1830 in Paris. None were officially owned or sponsored by the Church and they reflected a range of opinion among educated Catholics about current issues, such as the 1830 July Revolution that overthrew the Bourbon monarchy. Several were strong supporters of the Bourbon kings, but all eight ultimately urged support for the new government, putting their appeals in terms of preserving civil order. They often discussed the relationship between church and state. Generally, they urged priests to focus on spiritual matters and not engage in politics. Historian M. Patricia Dougherty says this process created a distance between the Church and the new monarch and enabled Catholics to develop a new understanding of church-state relationships and the source of political authority.[16][non-primary source needed]
TheMoniteur Ottoman was a gazette written inFrench and first published in 1831 on the order ofMahmud II. It was the firstofficial gazette of theOttoman Empire, edited by Alexandre Blacque at the expense of theSublime Porte. Its name perhaps referred to the French newspaperLe Moniteur Universel. It was issued weekly.Takvim-i vekayi was published a few months later, intended as a translation of theMoniteur intoOttoman Turkish. After having been edited by former Consul for Denmark "M. Franceschi", and later on by "Hassuna de Ghiez", it was lastly edited by Lucien Rouet. However, facing the hostility of embassies, it was closed in the 1840s.[17]
Satirical magazines of Turkey have a long tradition. One of the earliest satirical magazines wasDiyojen which was launched in 1869. There are around 20 satirical magazines; the leading ones arePenguen (70,000 weekly circulation),LeMan (50,000) andUykusuz. Historical examples includeOğuz Aral's magazineGırgır (which reached a circulation of 500,000 in the 1970s) andMarko Paşa (launched in 1946). Others includeL-Manyak andLombak.
This sectionneeds expansion with: a scholarly description of this subsection topic, derived from sources in addition to the one appearing Vogue fashion source. You can help byadding to it.(January 2025)
Publishing was a very expensive industry in colonial times. Paper and printer's ink were taxed imported goods and their quality was inconsistent.Interstate tariffs and a poor road system hindered distribution, even on a regional scale. Many magazines were launched, most failing within a few editions, but publishers kept trying.Benjamin Franklin is said to have envisioned one of the first magazines of the American colonies in 1741, theGeneral Magazine and Historical Chronicle. ThePennsylvania Magazine, edited byThomas Paine, ran only for a short time but was a very influential publication during theRevolutionary War. The final issue containing the text of theDeclaration of Independence was published in 1776.[18][better source needed]
In the mid-19th century, monthly magazines gained popularity. They were general interest to begin, containing some news, vignettes, poems, history, political events, and social discussion.[19][page needed] Unlike newspapers, they were more of a monthly record of current events along with entertaining stories, poems, and pictures. The first periodicals to branch out from news wereHarper's andThe Atlantic, which focused on fostering the arts.[20][page needed] BothHarper's andThe Atlantic persist to this day, withHarper's being a cultural magazine and The Atlantic focusing mainly on world events. Early publications ofHarper's even held famous works such as early publications ofMoby Dick or famous events such as the laying of the world's firsttransatlantic telegraph cable; however, the majority of early content was trickle down from British events.[21]
The development of the magazines stimulated an increase in literary criticism and political debate, moving towards more opinionated pieces from the objective newspapers.[20][page needed] The increased time between prints and the greater amount of space to write provided a forum for public arguments by scholars and critical observers.[22][page needed]
The early periodical predecessors to magazines started to evolve to modern definition in the late 1800s.[22][page needed] Works slowly became more specialized and the general discussion or cultural periodicals were forced to adapt to a consumer market which yearned for more localization of issues and events.[20][page needed]
The Olympic Number ofLife, 10 July 1924. Issues of general interest magazines focused on a specific subject were referred to as "numbers" and featured cover art relevant to the given topic, in this case the1924 Summer Olympics.
Mass-circulation magazines became much more common after 1900, some with circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. Some passed the million-mark in the 1920s. It was an age ofmass media. Because of the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents.[23] One cause was the heavy coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business, especially byMuckrakers. They were journalists who wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. They relied on their owninvestigative journalism reporting; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate andpolitical corruption. Muckraking magazines–notablyMcClure's–took on corporate monopolies and crookedpolitical machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, andsocial issues such aschild labor.[24][page needed]
According to the Research Department ofStatista, closures of magazines outnumbered launches inNorth America during 2009. Although both figures declined during 2010–2015, launches outnumbered closures in each of those years, sometimes by a 3:1 ratio.[27] Focusing more narrowly, MediaFinder.com found that 93 new magazines were launched during the first six months of 2014, while only 30 closed in that time frame. The category which produced the most new publications was "Regional interest", of which six new magazines were launched, including12th & Broad andCraft Beer & Brewing.[28][full citation needed] However, two magazines had to change their print schedules.Johnson Publishing'sJet stopped printing regular issues, making the transition to digital format, though still printing an annual print edition.[29]Ladies' Home Journal stopped their monthly schedule and home delivery for subscribers to become a quarterly newsstand-only special interest publication.[30]
According to statistics from the end of 2013, subscription levels for 22 of the top 25 magazines declined from 2012 to 2013, with justTime,Glamour andESPN The Magazine gaining numbers.[31] However, by 2024, some titles, notably outdoors magazines, appeared to be growing in popularity.[32]
This sectionneeds expansion with: separation of the combined categories of audience and subject, and through further sourcing and examples as needed, in each subsection. You can help byadding to it.(January 2025)
The first women's magazine targeted toward wives and mothers was published in 1852.[35] In the 1920s, new magazines appealed to young German women with a sensuous image and advertisements for the appropriate clothes and accessories they would want to purchase. The glossy pages ofDie Dame andDas Blatt der Hausfrau displayed the "Neue Frauen", "New Girl" – what Americans called the flapper. This ideal young woman was chic, financially independent, and an eager consumer of the latest fashions. Magazines kept her up to date on fashion, arts, sports, and modern technology such as automobiles and telephones.[36]
Other women's magazines have influenced views ofmotherhood and child-rearing through the use of advice columns,advertisements, and articles related toparenting.[37] Mass-marketed women's magazines have shaped and transformed cultural values related to parenting practices. As such, magazines targeting women and parenthood have exerted power and influence over ideas about motherhood and child-rearing.[37]
Magazines publishing stories and photos of high-profile individuals and celebrities have long been a popular format in the United States.[39] In 2019,People Magazine ranked second behind ESPN Magazine in total reach with a reported reach of 98.51 million.[40]
This sectionneeds expansion with: source-derived content discussing the meaning, and journalistic purpose and impact of magazine cover art and photography. You can help byadding to it.(January 2025)
Being on the cover of a magazine is sometimes considered an honor or distinction;[citation needed] examples are one-time common statements to the effect that an individual had "appeared on the cover ofTime" or of theRolling Stone, etc.[citation needed]
The EnglishWikipedia presents a number of List-type articles that survey subjects and individuals appearing in the covers of specific magazines; see for example:
^Botein, Stephen; Censer, Jack R. & Ritvo, Harriet. "The periodical press in eighteenth-century English and French society: a cross-cultural approach."Comparative Studies in Society and History 23#3 (1981): 464–490.
^Darnton, Robert & Roche, Daniel, eds.,Revolution in Print: the Press in France, 1775–1800 (1989).[full citation needed]
^Keith Michael Baker, et al.,The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture: The transformation of the political culture, 1789–1848 (1989).[full citation needed]
^Dougherty, M. Patricia. "The French Catholic press and the July Revolution."French History 12#4 (1998): 403–428.
^Herbert Shapiro, ed.,The muckrakers and American society (Heath, 1968), contains representative samples as well as academic commentary.[full citation needed]
^Endres, Kathleen L.; Lueck, Therese L., eds. (1995).Women's periodicals in the United States: consumer magazines. Historical guides to the world's periodicals and newspapers. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-02930-1.
^Best, Kate (2017).The history of fashion journalism. London ; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.ISBN978-1-84788-656-9.
Angeletti, Norberto & Oliva, Alberto (2004).Magazines That Make History: Their Origins, Development, and Influence. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.ISBN9780813027661. Retrieved8 January 2025.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)This work, by twoVogue magazine historians, also covers such magazine titles asDer Spiegel,¡Hola!,Life,National Geographic,Paris Match,Reader's Digest,People, andTime.
Damon-Moore, Helen.Magazines for the Millions: Gender and Commerce in the Ladies' Home Journal and the Saturday Evening Post, 1880–1910 (1994)online[dead link]Archived 19 November 2016 at theWayback Machine
Elson, Robert T.Time Inc: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise, 1923–1941 (1968); vol. 2:The World of Time Inc.: The Intimate History, 1941–1960 (1973), official corporate history
Endres, Kathleen L. and Therese L. Lueck, eds.Women's Periodicals in the United States: Consumer Magazines (1995)online[dead link]Archived 19 November 2016 at theWayback Machine
Haveman, Heather A.Magazines and the Making of America: Modernization, Community, and Print Culture, 1741–1860 (Princeton UP, 2015)
Johnson, Ronald Maberry and Abby Arthur Johnson.Propaganda and Aesthetics: The Literary Politics of Afro-American Magazines in the Twentieth Century (1979)online[dead link]Archived 19 November 2016 at theWayback Machine[dead link]
Mott, Frank Luther.A History of American Magazines (five volumes, 1930–1968), detailed coverage of all major magazines, 1741 to 1930 by a leading scholar.
Rooks, Noliwe M.Ladies' Pages: African American Women's Magazines and the Culture That Made Them (Rutgers UP, 2004)onlineArchived 19 November 2016 at theWayback Machine
Summer, David E.The Magazine Century: American Magazines Since 1900 (Peter Lang Publishing; 2010) 242 pages. Examines the rapid growth of magazines throughout the 20th century and analyzes the form's current decline.
Tebbel, John, and Mary Ellen Zuckerman.The Magazine in America, 1741–1990 (1991), popular history
Wood, James P.Magazines in the United States: Their Social and Economic Influence (1949)onlineArchived 19 November 2016 at theWayback Machine
Zuckerman, Mary Ellen.A History of Popular Women's Magazines in the United States, 1792–1995 (Greenwood Press, 1998)onlineArchived 20 November 2016 at theWayback Machine
The Saturday Evening Post Staff (8 January 2025)."Norman Rockwell Biography".The Saturday Evening Post. Retrieved8 January 2025.This work discusses the history behind the 322 cover illustrations, generally painted, that Rockwell created for this magazine, through November 1963, before turning to another decade of painting illustrations about civil rights, poverty, and space exploration forLook magazine, en route to his 1977Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contribution to Americanportraiture.
MoMA Staff (8 January 2025)."Dennis Wheeler / American, born 1935".MoMA.org. New York, NY:The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). Retrieved8 January 2025.This work presents images of the seven cover graphic arts illustrations that Wheeler created forLife magazine, throughout 1963, originals and other materials related to which are now a part of this museum's collection.
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