Following the prehistoric breakup of thesupercontinentGondwana, Madagascar split from Africa during the EarlyJurassic period, around 180 million years ago, and separated from theIndian subcontinent approximately 90 million years ago.[16] This isolation allowed native plants and animals to evolve in relative seclusion; as a result, Madagascar is abiodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17megadiverse countries, with over 90% ofits wildlife beingendemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium CE (roughly 500 to 700) byAustronesian peoples,[17] presumably arriving onoutrigger canoes from present-dayIndonesia.[18][19][20] These were joined around the ninth century byBantu groups crossing theMozambique Channel fromEast Africa.[21] Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classifiedpeoples of Madagascar, the most numerous being theMerina of the central highlands.
Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as theKingdom of Madagascar bya series of Merinanobles. The monarchy was ended in 1897 by theannexation by France, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Followinga political crisis and military coup in 2009, Madagascar underwenta protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. In 2025,a series of mass protests resulted ina military coup and the installation ofMichael Randrianirina as president ofan interim government.
In theMalagasy language, the island of Madagascar is calledMadagasikara (Malagasy pronunciation:[madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]) and its people are referred to asMalagasy.[24][25] The origin of the name is uncertain,[26] and is likely foreign, having been propagated in theMiddle Ages byEuropeans.[27] If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predatingMadagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited.[28]
One hypothesis relatesMadagascar to the wordMalay, referring to theAustronesian origin of theMalagasy people in modern-dayIndonesia. In a map byMuhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is namedGesira Malai, or "Malay island" inArabic. The inversion of this name toMalai Gesira, as it was known by theGreeks, is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island.[29] The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin asMalichu, an abbreviated form ofMalai Insula, in the medievalHereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar.[30][29]
Another hypothesis is thatMadagascar is a corrupted transliteration ofMogadishu, the capital ofSomalia and an important medievalIndian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-centuryVenetian explorerMarco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land ofMadageiscar to the south ofSocotra. This name would then have been popularized onRenaissance maps by Europeans.[27][28] One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called itMadagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar byJerome Megiser.[31][32] Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings ofMogadishu andAdal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around 25,000 men in order to invade the wealthy islands ofTaprobane andSumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar.[31][32][33][34]Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, aDutch traveler who copiedPortuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it.[31][35]
The nameMalagasikara, orMalagascar, is also historically attested. An English state paper in 1699 records the arrival of 80 to 90 passengers from "Malagaskar" to what eventually becameNew York City.[36] An 1882 edition of the British newspaperThe Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word ofMalay origin, and may be related to the name ofMalacca.[37] In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, aZanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of theEmin Pasha Relief Expedition.[38] In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis thatMalagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they wereMalagasy, and notMadagasy.[39]
Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and Bantu (Southeast African) roots.
Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves inoutrigger canoes fromSouth Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BCE and 550 CE, while others are cautious about dates earlier than 250 CE. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement ofIceland andNew Zealand.[40] It has been proposed thatMa'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves byJavan andSumatran-Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar.[41][42][43][44] Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium CE are not strongly supported.[45] However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence.[c][49]
Upon arrival, early settlers practicedslash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance ofmegafauna,[50] including 17 species ofgiant lemurs, the large flightlesselephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist,Aepyornis maximus), thegiant fossa, and several species ofMalagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction.[51] According to theGeneral History of Africa, these first settlers, thetompontany (masters of the soil/land), are thought to have been theKimosy in south-central Madagascar, theAntevinany in the southeast, theAntankoala andKajemby in the northwest, and theRasikajy in the northeast. Newer arrivals formed marriage alliances with thetompontany, facilitating their gradual assimilation.[52]: 900 By 600 CE, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of theCentral Highlands.[53] According to theGeneral History of Africa, by the 8th century theVazimba (a 'way of life' rather than ethnic group)[54]: 71 had absorbed or violently displaced the first settlers, and had come to refer to themselves astompontany.[52]: 900 Though Malagasy popular belief regards the Vazimba as the island's first inhabitants.[55]
Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries,[56] and introducedIslam and theArabic script (adapted assorabe for theMalagasy language).[57]Indian Ocean trade along the northwestern coast of Madagascar came to be controlled by theAntalaotra, MuslimSwahili-speakers who had migrated to the region around the 10th century and intermarried with the locals,[58]: 36–7 formingcity-states such asMahilaka [de] andIrodo [fr].[52]: 900 A wave ofBantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000.[59] Around this time,zebu fromSouth India were first brought, intermingling withsanga found in East Africa.[60] By 1100, all regions of Madagascar were inhabited, although the total population remained small.[54]: 48 Societies organized at the behest ofhasina (which later evolved to embody kingship) and competed with one another over theisland's estuaries andbridgeheads, with oral histories describing bloody clashes and earlier settlers often pushed along the coast or inland.[54]: 43, 52–3 An Arab geographer wrote in 1224 that the island consisted of a great many towns and kingdoms, with kings making war on each other.[54]: 51–2 Assisted by climate change, the peoples gradually transformed the island fromdense forest to grassland for cultivation and zebupastoralism.[54]: 71
Rise of early kingdoms and contact with Europeans
The period from 1500 to 1800 saw Madagascar's populations go from being mobile and unsettled to having organized largely into states.[61]: 70 On the northern coast, Mahilaka was abandoned and replaced byVohemar in the 15th century as one of the island's main trading ports,[49] accompanied byMazalagem Nova in the late-16th century.Portuguese navigators reached Madagascar around 1500, and sacked the port city ofSada (part of theGuingemaro kingdom) in 1506.[62]: 75, 91 Over the following centuries theslave trade grew in importance as slaves were traded for firearms.[63]: 102 In the late-17th century, Madagascar saw an influx of pirates who had been expelled from theCaribbean, some of whom participated in local wars andmarried local women [mg], though they were routed by theBritish navy in the 1720s.[d][63]: 105 [66]: 864
The origin of the Maroserana, the dynasty of theSakalava empire, is uncertain, with Sakalava traditions[e] holding that they originated from overseas and migrated to southwest Madagascar.[67]: 164 The proto-Sakalava are thought to have originated fromSadia (located at the mouth of theManambolo River).[66]: 857, 869 HistorianSolofo Randrianja considers the Maroserana to have lived in south-central Madagascar,[62]: 94 whileRaymond Kent thought that they originated in the southwest and first came to power among theMahafaly.[67]: 26 Mahafaly tradition has Olembetsitoto as their first Maroseranasacred ruler in the 16th century, who was protected by anombiasy [fr] (priest).[66]: 856, 867 Prior to 1600, only the north of the island was integrated into Indian Ocean trade; in the mid-to late-16th century, European merchants (vazaha; "foreigners") began using the newly-namedSt. Augustine Bay in the southwest as a stopping-point and traded with the communities there. TheBritish attempted to found a colony at the Bay in 1645 but were expelled by the Malagasy.[58]: 38–9, 54, 61–2
Kent considered the Maroserana to have migrated and met the proto-Sakalava near theMangoky River, who all traditions agree were skilled warriors.[66]: 869 Sakalava traditions detail how a kingdom was founded along theMorondava River before 1600, calledMenabe ("very red") after the red soil. In the late-16th or early-17th century,Andriamandazoala [mg] centralized theKingdom of Menabe.[f]Andriandahifotsy [mg] expanded the state and monopolized coastal trade.[g] After initial hostility, he established relations with European merchants.[58]: 77–9, 83–9 Around 1685, a succession dispute sawAndriamanetriarivo [mg] come to power in Menabe as he expelled his brotherAndriamandisoarivo [mg]. Andriamandisoarivo took this opportunity to expand north with his followers, and conquered port cities along the coast. He captured Mazalagem Nova and killed the Antalaotra sultan, establishing his commercial capital atMajunga in the early-18th century and founding theKingdom of Boina.[h] How the Sakalava acquired territory in the south is disputed; Jane Hooper considers another expelled brother to have expanded south and foundedToliara in theFiherenanaValley as anAndrevola tributary,[i][58]: 89–91, 95–7 while Randrianja thought the Maroserana to have come to rule there during their initial migration.[63]: 100 Kent considered a brother,Andriamandresy [mg], to have migrated east and founded theAntesaka kingdom on the southeast coast in accordance withAntesaka tradition.[66]: 884 Hooper writes that Andriandahifotsy re-established relations with his brothers as the Sakalava came to control Madagascar's west coast and dominate trade.[58]: 98–9
In the southwest and south, conflict between theMahafaly andAntandroy kingdoms in the mid-17th century caused the death of two Antandroy kings and saw Mahafaly split in two:Menarandra andSakatovo, with Menarandra soon splitting further to produceLinta. In the early-18th century, a Menarandra king expanded east to conquer the western Antandroy, though yet another split producedOnilahy.[66]: 867–8 On the east coast, when theAntemoro settled their lands they found Muslim settlers, theZafiraminia, already there since around 1500. A conflict between the two broke out,[j] and the Zafiraminia had come to rule theAntemoro kingdom by the mid-16th century.[66]: 851–3 In the southeast the French foundedFort Dauphin in 1642. They intervened in local conflicts and raided for cattle, provoking insecurity. TheAntanosy attacked the colony, though were defeated byFlacourt's forces. Another attack destroyed the colony and resulted in thekilling of French settlers who remained in 1674.[68]
In the Central Highlands,Merina traditions hold that they encountered the Vazimba[k] when gradually settling the highlands from the southeast, thought to have been completed by the 15th century.[53][54]: 70 After peacefully coexisting for several generations,Alasora kingAndriamanelo, son of a Vazimba queen[l] and Merina man, launched a campaign to conquer the Vazimba.[69]: 142 Of his successors,Ralambo founded theMerina Kingdom,[m] andAndrianjaka completed the expulsion and assimilation of the Vazimba by the early-17th century.[66]: 876 Traditions attribute the conquest of the Vazimba to the need to acquire more land for rice cultivation, with archaeological research putting the beginning of this expansion in the 14th century.[58]: 49–50 In the mid-17th century a Mahafaly king invadedBara territory and appointed his relatives, theZafimanely, as rulers, who gained independence ofvarious kinglets after his death.[66]: 880 Betsileo kingdoms such asArindrano andIsandra were likely founded in the mid-17th century, and theBetsileo derive their name from King Besilau who repelled a Sakalava-Menabe invasion in the 1670s.[n] By the 18th century the Betsileo were the island's most proficient cultivators of rice.[66]: 874–5
By 1720, Sakalava-Boina kingToakafo is considered to have been the most powerful ruler in Madagascar, and possibly ruled the entire northern third of the island.[70] In the 18th century, the French established various trading posts along the east coast in order to supply theMascarenes.[58]: 155–6 On the northeast coast, the Tsikoa tribe coalesced under a single ruler and invaded theAntavaratra (Northerners) c. 1710, intent on capturing their lucrative ports.Ratsimilaho, a son of anEnglish pirate and Malagasy woman who had been Toakafo's chief minister,[63]: 106 managed to unite theAntavaratra, repel the Tsikoa, and drive them south. Ratsimilaho founded theBetsimisaraka Confederation, and by the 1730s was one of the most powerful kings in Madagascar, though the state disintegrated soon after his death in 1754.[66]: 882–3 The French attempted to set up trading posts on the northwest coast, resulting in conflict with the Sakalava in the 1770s that ended inconclusively.[58]: 160–1 Merina kingAndriamasinavalona expanded the kingdom further, and ruled much of the Central Highlands during his reign, though in the early-18th century he abdicated and divided the state between four of his sons. A fiercecivil war ensued characterized by slave-raiding and -trading, and it wasn't until the 1790s that the kingdom was reunited via conquest and diplomacy byAndrianampoinimerina.[66]: 877 [71]: 204 [63]: 114–8
After reuniting Imerina, and now seated at theRova of Antananarivo, Andrianampoinimerina rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. He used ports' reliance on the supply of slaves from the highlands to gain control over trade on the eastern coast.[58]: 165 Andrianampoinimerina's ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, KingRadama I (r.1810–28).[72] The 18th century had seen rivalry between the French and the British over the wider Indian Ocean trade, of which Malagasy trade had proved decisive during theCarnatic Wars.[58]: 195 Radama expanded east to controlToamasina on the coast,[73]: 416 and concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor ofMauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance, and recognition as the "King of Madagascar". Artisan missionary envoys from theLondon Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 who established schools, transcribed theMalagasy language using theRoman alphabet, and translated the Bible.[72] In response, the Sakalava and French found themselves as natural allies.[58]: 198 Radama embarked on successive campaigns to conquer the island, subduing the east coast, dismantling Iboina and expelling its ruler, and achieving Menabe's nominal submission. By 1828 he controlled two-thirds of the island (excepting the Bara, Mahafaly, andAntandroy), though Merina rule was far from secure and widespread resistance continued.[73]: 420–2
Radama's successor, QueenRanavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice ofChristianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice offanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal oftangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, thetangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually.[74] The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.[75] In 1839, Boina queenTsiomeko, having fled to the island ofNosy Be, requested French assistance against Merina attacks. In accordance with France's conditions, she signed Nosy Be and part of the mainland to them,[76] which the French then declared as itsprotectorate.[58]: 241–5
Among those who continued to reside in Imerina wereJean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, andJoseph-François Lambert, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-PrinceRadama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed theLambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but wasoverthrown two years later by Prime MinisterRainivoninahitriniony and an alliance ofAndriana (noble) andHova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.[57]
Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen,Rasoherina, the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.[77] Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime MinisterRainilaiarivony, who would go on to marry QueenRanavalona II and QueenRanavalona III in succession.[78]
Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.[79] Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.[80]Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.[79] Legal codes were reformed on the basis of Britishcommon law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.[80] In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.[80] The French devised plans in 1842 and the 1860s to land troops in Madagascar and assist the Sakalava, who continued to resist, in a war against Imerina, however they didn't come to fruition.[58]: 252
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the firstFranco-Hova War.[81] At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town ofAntsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.[82] In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a Frenchprotectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor ofToamasina on the east coast, andMahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.[83]
A French militaryflying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came fromAlgeria andSub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.[84] Popular resistance to the French capture ofAntananarivo—known as theMenalamba rebellion—broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897.[85][86] France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile onRéunion Island and to Algeria.[citation needed]
The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country.[87] The Frenchcampaign against Menabe began with theAmbiky massacre [fr] in 1897 and ended in 1902. The Antandroy and Mahafaly continued to oppose colonial rule, though yielded in 1904.[88]: 238–9 In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.[87]
Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.[89]Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants[90] or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.[91] Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo[92] and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.[93] Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills.[94]
National monument inMoramanga commemorating the beginning of theMalagasy Uprising on 29 March 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising which lasted nearly two years.[95]
Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, theVy Vato Sakelika, theDemocratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activistFrançois Vittori [fr], who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and theCommunist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for theVichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.[96]
The Merina royal tradition oftaxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.[97] Malagasy troops fought for France inWorld War I. In the 1930s,Nazi political thinkers developed theMadagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.[98] During theSecond World War, the island was the site of theBattle of Madagascar between theVichy French and anAllied expeditionary force.[99]
The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to theMalagasy Uprising of 1947.[100] This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under theLoi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.[101] TheMalagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as anautonomous state within theFrench Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.[102]
Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. TheFirst Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed PresidentPhilibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired aseries of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.[57]
Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. ColonelRichard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. GeneralGilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice AdmiralDidier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Marxist–LeninistSecond Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.[103]
This period saw a political alignment with theEastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,[57] and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund,World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.[104]
Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership ofAlbert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate theThird Republic (1992–2010).[105] The newMadagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.[57] Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president,Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.[104]
The contested2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo,Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.[104]
Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo,Andry Rajoelina, led amovement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as acoup d'état.[106] In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of theHigh Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution wasadopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.[105]Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.[107]
In 2018 the first round of thepresidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.[108][109][110] In June 2019parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as astrongman.[111]
Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to facefood insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of afamine.[112]
In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of theelection amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.[113] Power and water cuts, and general distrust of Rajoelina's administration, sparked aseries of protests in 2025 that culiminated in his flight and impeachment with the miltarytaking control of the country.[114][115]
The prehistoric breakup of thesupercontinentGondwana resulted in the separation ofEast Gondwana (comprising Madagascar,Antarctica,Australia and theIndian subcontinent) andWest Gondwana (Africa andSouth America) during theJurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago[118] and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the LateCretaceous.[119] This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steepescarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropicallowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies aplateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. Thesecentral highlands, traditionally the homeland of theMerina people and the location of their historic capital atAntananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of thesubhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to theMozambique Channel andmangrove swamps along the coast.[120]
Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highlandmassifs:Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in theTsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in theAndringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in theAnkaratra Massif. To the east, theCanal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).[121]
The western and southern sides, which lie in therain shadow of the central highlands, are home todry deciduous forests,spiny forests, anddeserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.[121]
The combination of southeasterntrade winds and northwesternmonsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructivecyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over theIndian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area'srainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and asemi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.[120]
Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.[122] In 2004,Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless[123] and caused more than US$250 million in damage.[124] In February 2022,Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people,[17][125] weeks afterCyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.[126]
A 2022 analysis found that Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences ofclimate change, is going to have to spend 15% of its GDP.[127]
Comet orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale), the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species ofhawkmoth with a proboscis of matching length.
More than 80% of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.[133] The familyDidiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar.[120] Four-fifths of the world'sPachypodium species are endemic to the island.[134] Three-fourths[135] of Madagascar's 860[133]Orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's ninebaobab species.[136] The island is home to around 170palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.[135] Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugsvinblastine[137][138] andvincristine[137][139] arevinca alkaloids,[140][141] used to treatHodgkin lymphoma,[142]leukemia,[143] and other cancers,[144] were derived from theMadagascar periwinkle.[145][146] The traveler's palm, known locally asRavenala[147] and endemic to the eastern rainforests,[148] is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in thenational emblem as well as theMadagascar Airlines logo.[149]
Thering-tailed lemur is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.[150]
Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism.Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.[128] In the absence ofmonkeys and other competitors, theseprimates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012[update], there were officially103 species and subspecies of lemur,[151] 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.[152] They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.[153]
A number of othermammals, including the catlikefossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species ofbirds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60% (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.[128] The few families and genera ofreptiles that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90% of these being endemic[154] (including one endemic family).[128] The island is home to two-thirds of the world'schameleon species,[154] including thesmallest known.[155]
Endemicfish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Althoughinvertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species ofterrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island'sbutterflies,scarab beetles,lacewings,spiders, anddragonflies.[128]
Tavy (slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (top), causing massive erosion (bottom).
Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.[156] Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest.[157] This forest loss is largely fueled bytavy ("fat"), a traditionalslash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.[158] Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy).[159] As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.[160] By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.[158] More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as acash crop over the past century.[161] According to a conservative estimate, about 40% of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80%.[162] In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-PresidentMarc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration ofAndry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.[163]
Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of theAsian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna."[164]Habitat destruction andhunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island'selephant birds, a family of endemic giantratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.[165] Numerousgiant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.[166] A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90% of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published inNature Communications found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.[167]
In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island'sprotected natural areas to over 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) or 10% of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011[update], areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux).[168] In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a jointWorld Heritage Site under the nameRainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks areMarojejy,Masoala,Ranomafana,Zahamena,Andohahela andAndringitra.[169] Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species ofrosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxuryfurniture andmusical instruments.[170]
Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar.
Madagascar is asemi-presidentialrepresentative democraticmulti-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects aprime minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to theconstitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet,[171] theSenate and theNational Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.[9]
The public directly elects the president and the 151 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All 18 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 12 senators elected by local officials and 6 appointed by the president.[citation needed]
At the local level, the island's 23 regions are administered by a governor and regional council. Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.[172] The courts, which adhere tocivil law, lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.[173]
Antananarivo is the administrativecapital andlargest city of Madagascar.[9] It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. KingAndrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of hisImerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a capturedVazimba capital on the hilltop ofAnalamanga.[174] As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.[175] The next largest cities areAntsirabe (500,000),Toamasina (450,000) andMahajanga (400,000).[9]
Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challengerMarc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.[176]A series of protests led byAndry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.[177] Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.[178]
Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of theOrganisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by theAfrican Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina.[179] Madagascar is a member of theInternational Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for theUnited States military.[9] 11 countries have established embassies in Madagascar, includingFrance, theUnited Kingdom, theUnited States,China andIndia,[180] while Madagascar hasembassies in 16 other countries.[citation needed]
Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights and theConvention on the Rights of the Child.[181] Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.[163][181] Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.[163] Accusations of mediacensorship have risen due to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.[182] Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreadingfake news.[183]
The rise of centralized kingdoms among theSakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms.[184] By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000.[185] French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.[186]
The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.[187] Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.[188][189] The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.[163]
The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the secret police.[172] The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.[190] Traditional community tribunals, calleddina, are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.[163] Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.[172] Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.[163]
Madagascar is subdivided into 23 regions (faritra).[9] The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485fokontany.[190]
Madagascar became amember state of theUnited Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960.[192] As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed inHaiti as part of theUnited Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.[193] Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, theWorld Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.[194] These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions.[194] In 2017, Madagascar signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[195]
Historical change in per capita GDP of Madagascar since 1950Nosy Iranja is one of the international tourism destinations in Madagascar.
Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.[196][197] Approximately 69% of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day.[198] According to theUnited Nations Development Programme, as of 2021, 68.4% of the population ismultidimensionally poor.[23] During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.[199] The agriculture sector constituted 29% of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15% of GDP. Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.[200] The fishing sector represents US$800M or 6% of GNP with 200,000 direct jobs.[201]
Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.[202] An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.[200] However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years. In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015. For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.[203]
The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year;[204][205] almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017,[206] one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1%[207] with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.[208] The main economic resources of Madagascar are tourism,textiles,agriculture, andmining.[citation needed]
In 2017, poverty affected 92% of Madagascar's population. The country ranked fourth globally in terms of chronic malnutrition, with nearly one in two children under the age of five experiencing stunted growth. Additionally, Madagascar was among the five countries where access to clean water was most limited. According to the NGO WaterAid, approximately 12 million people lacked access to safe drinking water.[209]
As of 2025, poverty affects approximately 80% of Madagascar's population, based on a daily income threshold of $2.15 (2017 PPP).[210] Nearly 1.94 million people are projected to experience high levels of acute food insecurity during the lean season.[211] Access to clean water remains a critical issue. Madagascar remains a water-stressed country, with climate shocks and infrastructure gaps exacerbating the crisis.[212]
Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves[215] andylang-ylang.[123] The island supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla.[216] Other key agricultural resources includecoffee,lychees andshrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply ofsapphires, which were discovered nearIlakaka in the late 1990s.[217]
Exports formed 28% of GDP in 2009.[9] Most of the country's export revenue is derived from thetextiles industry,fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and otherfoodstuffs.[200]France is the nation's main trading partner, although theUnited States,Japan andGermany also have strong economic ties.[121] High-value cash crops for export such as lychees are more recent growth areas, with 18,000 tons sold abroad in 2023, of which 16,000 tons were exported to Europe.[221]
The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration betweenUSAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.[222] Imports of such items as foodstuffs,fuel,capital goods,vehicles,consumer goods andelectronics consume an estimated 52% of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports includeChina,[223]France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.[9]
In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of pavedroads, 854 km (530 mi) ofrailways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigablewaterways.[14] The majority ofroads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely pavednational routes connect the six largest regional towns toAntananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district.[122] Construction of theAntananarivo–Toamasina toll highway, the country's firsttoll highway, began in December 2022. The approximatelyUS$1,000,000,000 infrastructure project, which will connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, is expected to take four years to complete.[224] Another project meant to create 348 kilometres (216 mi) of roads and create better connections costs €235.5 million. This includes a €116 million grant from theEuropean Union, a €110 million loan from theEuropean Investment Bank, and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar.[225] Since 2016, €100.4 million has been paid to the Republic of Madagascar through this project.[225][226]
There are severalrail lines in Madagascar. Antananarivo is connected toToamasina,Ambatondrazaka andAntsirabe by rail, and another rail line connectsFianarantsoa toManakara. The most importantseaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports atMahajanga andAntsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness.[122] Madagascar's government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana in the north andTaolagnaro in the south, connecting them to improved road networks, since many imports are every day necessities and Madagascar also relies on export money.[225][227][228] The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed byRio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.[218]Madagascar Airlines services the island's many small regionalairports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.[122]
In many placesoxcarts are an important medium of transport, like inAmbatolampy.
Running water andelectricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider,Jirama, which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009[update], only 6.8% of Madagascar'sfokontany had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5% had access to its electricity services.[190] 56% of Madagascar's power is provided byhydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44% provided bydiesel engine generators.[229]Mobile telephone andinternet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.[190] TheWorld Bank estimates that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than 2 kilometres away from an all-season road.[230] In Madagascar, 11% of the rural population has access to power.[225][231]
Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.[173] In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. Severalmedia outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned byRavalomanana) and Viva (owned byRajoelina),[163] contributing to political polarization in reporting.
The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to close.[173] Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.[181] Access to the internet has grown dramatically in the 21st century; in December 2011, an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessed the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés .[173] By January 2022, 22.3% of the population (6.43 million people) had internet access, mostly through mobile phones.[232]
Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Almost 60% of the nation's population live in rural areas.[233]
In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.[234][122] The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.4% in 2024.[234]
Approximately 39.3% of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 57.3% are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3.4% of the total population.[234] Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.[122]
TheMalagasy ethnic group forms over 90% of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.[9] Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend ofSoutheast Asian andEast African genes,[235][236][237] although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or someArab,Indian, orEuropean ancestry.[238]
Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part ofBorneo – are most predominant among theMerina of the central highlands,[178] who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26% of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively calledcôtiers) have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are theBetsimisaraka (14.9%) and theTsimihety andSakalava (6% each).[122] Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend ofAustronesian andBantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab,Somali,Gujarati, andTamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples.[citation needed]
Chinese,Indian andComoran minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarilyFrench) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.[122] By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.[121] The number ofEuropeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958[239] to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.[122]
The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages: Malagasy, French, andEnglish.[241] A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 followinga referendum,[1] recognised only Malagasy and French.
TheMalagasy language is ofMalayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,[242] can be clustered under three subgroups: Central-Eastern Malagasic, Northern Malagasic and Southern Malagasic.[243]
French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is afrancophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.[122] Among the upper class in large cities, French is spoken as a native language.[246]
Christianity is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52%) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41%, followed byIslam at 7%. However, according to thePew Research Center in 2020, 85% of the population identified asChristian, while just 4.5% exclusively practiced folk religions;Protestants comprise a plurality of Christians, followed byCatholics.[247] In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by theAssociation of Religion Data Archives found 58.1% of the population wasChristian, 2.1%Muslim, 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% wasnonreligious or adhered to other faiths.[248][9]
The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities orsyncretizing different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite aChristian minister to consecrate afamadihana reburial.[249] Christianity is predominant in the highlands.[250] The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Catholic,Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar,Lutheran, andAnglican) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.[251]
Theveneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of thefamadihana, whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. Thefamadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and ahiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.[249] Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence tofady, taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice ofzebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, calledZanahary or Andriamanitra.[252]
Islam was first brought to Madagascar in theMiddle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. In 2020,Muslims constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar.[248][9] They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces ofMahajanga andAntsiranana. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy andIndians,Pakistanis and Comorans.[citation needed]
Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar throughGujarati people immigrating from theSaurashtra region ofIndia in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speakGujarati orHindi at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.[253]
Rabbinic Judaism emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspiredMessianic Jews in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying theTorah. In 2016, 121 members of theMalagasy Jewish community were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.[254]
Medical centers,dispensaries, andhospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly inAntananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.[255] In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150doctors, 5,661nurses, 385 communityhealth workers, 175pharmacists, and 57dentists for a population of 22 million. 15% of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70% of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30% originated with international donors and other private sources.[256] The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.[190]
Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past 20 years. Child immunizations against such diseases ashepatitis B,diphtheria, andmeasles increased an average of 60% in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8% in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.[256] In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,[9] with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.[257]Schistosomiasis,malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although as of 2011 theHIV infection rate remained low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2% of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.[256] Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.[256]
Madagascar hadoutbreaks of thebubonic plague andpneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).[258] In 2019, Madagascar hada measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by theCOVID-19 pandemic. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.[259] According to theUnited Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat,[260] due to what could become thefirst famine caused byclimate change.[261]
Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.[122] The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 atToamasina by members of theLondon Missionary Society (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835,[262] but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death.
By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonialSub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, withFrench language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.[122] Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled,Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.[263]
This policy, known asmalgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.[264]
Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.[265] The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.[122] During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.[265]
Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school perfokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.[190] The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.[122]
As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.[265] Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.[266] Public expenditure on education was 2.8% of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.[116]
Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasizefihavanana (solidarity),vintana (destiny),tody (karma), andhasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.[122][252]
Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community.[267]Malagasy people traditionally consultMpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings orfamadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced byArabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as theombiasy (fromolona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeasternAntemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to earlySomali settlers.[268]
The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, thevaliha, is abambootube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southernBorneo, and is very similar in form to those found inIndonesia and thePhilippines today.[269] Traditionalhouses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.[270] Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.[271] The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the wovenlamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art.[272]
TheSoutheast Asian cultural influence is also evident inMalagasy cuisine, in whichrice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorfulvegetable ormeat dishes.[273] African influence is reflected in the sacred importance ofzebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland.Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds ofcattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.[274]
A wide variety of oral and writtenliterature has developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms ofhainteny (poetry),kabary (public discourse) andohabolana (proverbs).[275][276] An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, theIbonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.[277] This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists asJean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet,[278] andElie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.[279] Madagascar has also developed a richmusical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastalsalegy or highlandhiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.[280] Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music.[citation needed]
The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving ofraffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.[222] Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods,aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.[281] The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of theZafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed onUNESCO'slist of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.[282]
Among theAntaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.[281] Embroidery anddrawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.[222] Malagasy artists such asMadame Zo have incorporated textile traditions of Madagascar directly into their work.[283] A small but growing number of fine art galleries inAntananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.[284]
Sport
Moraingy is a traditional martial art of Madagascar.
A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar.Moraingy, a type ofhand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.[285] The wrestling of zebu cattle, which is named savika ortolon-omby, is also practiced in many regions.[286] In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic isfanorona, aboard game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of KingAndrianjaka after his fatherRalambo was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playingfanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.[287]
Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences ofSoutheast Asian,African,Oceania,Indian,Chinese, andEuropean culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties oflaoka may bevegetarian or include animalproteins, and typically feature asauce flavored with such ingredients asginger,onion,garlic,tomato,vanilla,coconut milk,salt,curry powder,green peppercorns, or less commonly, otherspices orherbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice withmaize,cassava, orcurds made from fermented zebumilk. A wide variety of sweet and savoryfritters as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climatefruits. Locally produced beverages includefruit juices,coffee,herbal teas, andalcoholic drinks such asrum,wine, andbeer.[273]Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island[296] and is considered emblematic of Madagascar.[297]
^Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.[46][47][48] SeeHistory of Madagascar.
^Solofo Randrianja writes that "one or two pirates actually claimed to rule small areas of Madagascar themselves".[63]: 105 A 1724 book,A General History of the Pyrates (GHP), is the source of a number of narratives inpopular history, one being the utopian pirate colony ofLibertalia. Most modern scholars consider Libertalia to be fictional, and theOxford Research Encyclopedia of African History describes the GHP as "not a historical primary source but [a] fabulous literary one".[64][65]
^Calledfitera,n'antoaniraza (customs), orlovan'tsofina (heritage of the ears), Sakalavaoral traditions vary in content, especially when compared to Imerina's body of tradition (theTantara ny Andriana), in part due to their time of collection in the mid-19th century when the empire had undergone disintegration, resulting in the absence of a single body of tradition.[58]: 159–60
^Traditionally Andriamandazoala is held to have come from overseas. Other traditions say the founder was Andrianalimbe who came from the interior. Yet another strain of Sakalava tradition holds Rabaratavokoko as its founder. This name means "noble-bent-reed", whileAndriamandazoala means "lord-who-withered-the-forest". HistorianRaymond Kent interpreted these as implyingRabaratavokoko was afitahina (aposthumous name deriving from ataboo around calling monarchs 'dead') for Andriamandazoala.[66]: 856–7
^Kent said that it is plausible that a long-term highbirth rate among the Maroserana royal family led to many princes without administrative positions, incentivising expansion.[66]: 859
^After the conflict they aimed to avoid disrupting the Antalaotra trade, instead only taking tribute.[58]: 96
^Both Kent and Hooper wrote that the Andrevola were incorporated into the empire via ablood brotherhood ceremony calledfatidra [mg], which acted as a guarantee of safety and assistance from the monarch.[58]: 91 [66]: 870
^Represented in traditions as a battle between two giants,Darafify and Fatrapaitatana.[66]: 853
^In Merina tradition, Ralambo is credited with founding various institutions, such as ahead tax andstanding army, and with domesticating zebu.[66]: 876
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