Ma'n dynasty بَنُو مَعْن (Banū Maʿn)
Flag of the Ma'nid dynasty
Country	TheChouf inMount Lebanon, part of the: Burid Emirate/Kingdom of Jerusalem (1120–1154) Zengid Emirate/Kingdom of Jerusalem (1154–1187) Ayyubid Sultanate (1187–1260) Mamluk Sultanate (1260–1517) Ottoman Empire (1517–1697)
Founded	1120 (as cited by local tradition) Late 15th century (as attested historically)
Founder	Ma'n (as cited by local tradition) Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Hajj Yunus (d. 1506; first historically attested)
Final ruler	Ahmed ibn Mulhim ibn Yunusfl. 1658–1697
Members	Fakhr al-Din (II) ibn Qurqumaz (fl. 1591–1633) Mulhim ibn Yunus (fl. 1633–1658
Dissolution	1697

TheMa'n dynasty (Arabic:ٱلْأُسْرَةُ ٱلْمَعْنِيَّةُ,romanized: Banū Maʿn, alternatively spelledMa'an), also known as theMa'nids; (Arabic:ٱلْمَعْنِيُّونَ), were a family ofDruze chiefs ofArab stock based in the ruggedChouf area of southernMount Lebanon who were politically prominent in the 15th–17th centuries. Traditional Lebanese histories date the family's arrival in the Chouf to the 12th century, when they were held to have struggled against theCrusader lords of Beirut andof Sidon alongside their Druze allies, theTanukh Buhturids. They may have been part of a wider movement by the Muslim rulers ofDamascus to settle militarized Arab tribesmen in Mount Lebanon as a buffer against the Crusader strongholds along the Levantine coast.Fakhr al-Din I (d. 1506), the first member of the family whose historicity is certain, was the "emir of the Chouf", according to contemporary sources and, despite the non-use of mosques by the Druze, founded theFakhreddine Mosque in the family's stronghold ofDeir al-Qamar.

Two years following theadvent of Ottoman rule in theSyrian region in 1516, three chiefs of the Ma'n dynasty were imprisoned for rebellion by theDamascus Eyalet governorJanbirdi al-Ghazali, but released by SultanSelim I. The Ma'ns and their Druze coreligionists in the Chouf were continually targeted in punitive campaigns by the Ottomans related to their evasion and defiance of government tax collectors and their stockpiling of illegal firearms, which were often superior to those of the government troops. The particularly destructive1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze prompted the Ma'nid emir Qurqumaz ibn Yunis to go into hiding in the neighboringKisrawan, where he died the following year.

His son,Fakhr al-Din II, emergedc. 1590 as the local chief and tax farmer of the Chouf and, in contrast to his Ma'nid predecessors, cultivated close ties with the authorities in Damascus and the imperial capital,Constantinople. In 1593, he was appointed the governor of theSidon-Beirut Sanjak, spanning southern Mount Lebanon and the coastal towns of Beirut and Sidon, and in 1602 was additionally appointed to theSafed Sanjak, spanning theJabal Amil,Galilee, and port ofAcre. By 1613, he had amassed considerable power but lost his imperial patron, while his illicit takeover of strategic forts, hiring of outlawed musketeers, and government knowledge of his alliance with theirTuscan enemies prompted a major campaign against the Ma'ns. The dynasty lost its territories and forts and Fakhr al-Din escaped to Italy. Within two years, his brother Yunus and son Ali restored Ma'nid power in Sidon-Beirut and Safed, which was consolidated when Fakhr al-Din returned to lead the dynasty in 1618. After a few years, he defeated his major rivalYusuf Sayfa ofTripoli and extended Ma'nid dominion and tax farming rights to predominantlyMaronite, northern Mount Lebanon. By 1630 he controlled much ofTripoli Eyalet and was poised againstDamascus. The imperial government destroyed Ma'nid power in a second expedition in 1633, killing most of the dynasty's members and capturing and executing Fakhr al-Din in 1635.

A surviving son of Yunus,Mulhim Ma'n defeated the family's government-backed Druzerival,Ali Alam al-Din, in 1636 and regained theiltizam of the Druze Mountain in 1642. His sonsAhmad and Qurqumaz succeeded him as paramount emirs of the Druze in 1658, but were challenged by the Alam al-Dins and other Ottoman-backed Druze from the start. Qurqumaz was killed by the Ottomans in 1662. Ahmad defeated the Alam al-Dins in 1667 and assumed theiltizam of the Druze Mountain and neighboring, Maronite-populated Kisrawan. He maintained control of the region despite government dismissals and campaigns against him throughout the 1690s for backing Shia rebels. Ma'nid rule came to an end when Ahmad died without male progeny in 1697. The Druze chiefs selected Bashir Shihab, whose mother was Mulhim's daughter, to succeed Ahmad. He held theiltizam ofDruze Mountain and Kisrawan until his death in 1706, after which Haydar Shihab, whose mother was a daughter of Ahmad, took his place. His descendants from theShihab dynasty continued to hold theiltizam until the expulsion ofBashir II in 1841. The emirate and iltizam of the Ma'ns and Shihabs over much of Mount Lebanon is viewed by historians as an early precursor to present-dayLebanon.

According to the historianKamal Salibi, the "origins of the house of Ma'n remains unclear, what is related about it by the traditional Lebanese historians being without foundation".^[1] The traditional account holds that the eponymousprogenitor of the Banu Ma'n belonged to a clan of theRabi'a, a large Arab tribal confederation with branches in the upperEuphrates River valley.^[2] Ma'n fought alongside theArtuqid leaderIlghazi against theCrusaders in northernSyria.^[2] He later moved to theBeqaa Valley until being transferred to the area of theChouf (also transliterated as Shuf) in southernMount Lebanon in 1120 by Ilghazi's ally,Toghtekin of Damascus, to reinforce theTanukhidDruze emirs of the neighboring Gharb district around modernAley against the Crusader lords ofBeirut.^[2][3] According to Salibi's analysis of the 19th-century history ofTannus al-Shidyaq, the deployment of the Ma'n was part of the wider deployment of Arab military settlers to parts of Mount Lebanon and its environs by the Muslim rulers of Damascus to counter the Crusaders.^[4] The emirs of theBanu Shihab, an Arab family established in nearbyWadi al-Taym, collaborated with the Ma'nids against the Crusaders and from early on the two families established marital ties.^[5]

TheCrusaders had captured Beirut in 1110 and during their subsequent raids against the Gharb the Tanukhid emir Adud al-Dawla and most of his kinsmen were slain.^[6] Ma'n had found the Chouf abandoned,^[7] though there is no evidence of its desolation at the time, according to the historian Robert Brendon Betts.^[8] The Tanukhid emirBuhtur, who was appointed commander of the Gharb by Damascus in 1147, supported the Ma'nid emir in constructing permanents dwellings for his clan in the Chouf.^[3] The Ma'n were joined in the settlement of the Chouf by their north Syrian associates, the Abu Nakad and Talhuq clans.^[7] Refugees from nearby areas taken over by the Crusaders migrated to the Chouf and numerous villages were founded, including the Ma'n's headquarter village ofBaaqlin. Baaqlin became a major center of the Druze faith,^[2] and in the present day is the largest Druze locality in Lebanon.^[8] Betts deems it improbable that the Banu Ma'n had been followers of "the Druze religion before coming into its sphere" in Mount Lebanon.^[8] Ma'n died in 1148 and was succeeded as head of his clan by his son Mundhir.^[2] According to the historian William Harris, the Banu Ma'n retained their lordship of the Chouf, as well as their ties to the descendants of Buhtur and the Banu Shihab, from their establishment in 1120 through theMamluk era (1260–1516).^[9]

The first Ma'nid "whose historicity is beyond question" wasFakhr al-Din Uthman, in the words of Salibi.^[1] He is also referred to as Fakhr al-Din I to distinguish him from his better known descendant.^[1] The Gharb-based Druze chroniclerIbn Sibat (d. 1520) refers to Fakhr al-Din Uthman as the "emir of theAshwaf [plural of Chouf] in the region ofSidon" who died in August/September 1506.^[10] The Damascene historianShams al-Din ibn Tulun (d. 1546) notes that a certain "Ibn Ma'n" was in the custody of the Mamluk governor of Damascus in 1498–99.[11] An inscription in a mosque inDeir al-Qamar, a major village in the Chouf, credits "al-Maqarr al-Fakhri [the Fakhrid Seat] Emir Fakhr al-Din Uthman ibnal-Hajj Yunus ibn Ma'n" as the builder of the mosque in 1493.^[10] Fakhr al-Din's construction of a mosque, which were not used by the Druze, and the honorific ofal-Hajj attached to the name of his father Yunus indicates they were influenced by the major Druze religious reformer, their contemporaryal-Sayyid al-Tanukhi (d. 1479), who advocated for Druze adoption of traditional Muslim rituals. They may also have represented attempts to gain favor with theSunni Muslim Mamluk rulers.^[10][12] The usage of the terms "emir" (commander) andal-Maqarr (an honorific for leading Mamluk officers or officials) suggest the Ma'nid chiefs held military commissions in the Mamluk army.^[10][11] Fakhr al-Din's son Yunus was also called by Ibn Sibat the "emir of theAshwaf" at the time of his death in 1511–12.^[13] The accounts of Ibn Sibat indicate the Ma'n controlled all or parts of the Chouf before theOttoman conquest of the Levant in 1516.^[11]

Following the Ottoman conquest, the Chouf was administratively divided into threenahiyas (subdistricts) of theSidon-Beirut Sanjak, which was a district of theDamascus Eyalet. The Chouf subdistricts, along with the subdistricts of Gharb, Jurd and Matn were predominantly populated by Druze at the time and collectively referred to as the Druze Mountain.^[14] The Ottoman sultanSelim I, after entering Damascus and receiving the defection of its Mamluk governorJanbirdi al-Ghazali, who was kept in his post, showed preference to the TurkmenAssaf clan, theKeserwan-based enemies of the Ma'nids' Buhturid allies. He entrusted the Assafs with political authority or tax-farming rights in the subdistricts between Beirut andTripoli, north of the Druze Mountain.^[15] The Buhturid emir Jamal al-Din Hajji did not give allegiance to Selim in Damascus and after discarding an Ottoman call to arms in 1518, he was imprisoned.^[16] The son of the Ma'nid emir Yunus, Qurqumaz, was summoned and confirmed by Selim in Damascus as the chief of the Chouf in 1517, according to the 17th-century historian andMaronite patriarchIstifan al-Duwayhi.^[13] Ibn Sibat does not mention any Ma'nid being received by the sultan in Damascus,^[17] but noted that the Ma'nid emirs Qurqumaz, Alam al-Din Sulayman and Zayn al-Din were all arrested by Janbirdi al-Ghazali in 1518 and transferred to the custody of Selim, who released them after a heavy fine for supporting the rebellion of theBedouinBanu al-Hansh emirs in Sidon and the Beqaa Valley.^[18]

The three Ma'nids likely shared the chieftainship of the Chouf, though the length and nature of the arrangement is not known.^[18] Zayn al-Din is assumed by the modern historianAbdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn to be the "Zayn Ibn Ma'n" mentioned in an Ottoman register as the owner of a dilapidated watermill with two millstones in 1543, while Ibn Tulun's reference to a part of the Chouf as "Shuf Sulayman Ibn Ma'n" in 1523 likely refers to Alam al-Din Sulayman.^[19] Neither Zayn nor Sulayman are mentioned by later chroniclers of the Ma'nids, likely for political reasons related to the chroniclers' association to the Ma'nid line of Qurqumaz.^[20] The latter was based in the Chouf village ofBaruk, where he gave refuge to members of theSayfa family after their flight from Akkar in 1528.^[19] Qurqumaz's establishment in Baruk instead of his predecessors' apparent seat in Deir al-Qamar may have been related to a conflict with Alam al-Din Sulayman, who may have controlled Deir al-Qamar at the time,^[21] or a division of the Chouf between the Ma'nid chieftains.^[19]

In 1523, forty-three villages in Shuf Sulayman Ibn Ma'n, including Baruk, were burned by the forces of the Damascus governorKhurram Pasha for tax arrears and Ma'nid disobedience, and the governor's forces sent back to Damascus four cartloads of Druze heads and religious texts in the aftermath of the campaign.^[22][23] According to Harris, "such brutality entrenched [Druze] resistance",^[23] and in the following year Druze fighters killedsubashis (provincial officials) appointed by Khurram Pasha to administer Mount Lebanon's subdistricts, prompting another government expedition against the Chouf, which returned three cartloads of Druze heads and three hundred women and children as captives.^[22] The death of Jamal al-Din Hajji in prison in 1521 and the Ottoman expeditions led the Buhturids to accept Ma'nid precedence over the Druze of southern Mount Lebanon.^[23] In 1545 the leading emir of the Druze, Yunus Ma'n, was lured to Damascus and executed by the authorities under unclear circumstances, but suggesting continued insubordination by the Druze under Ma'nid leadership.^[22]

Following the death of Yunus, the Druze moved to import from the Venetians long-range muskets superior to those employed by the Ottomans.^[24] In 1565 the new arms were put to use by the Druze in an ambush on Ottomansipahi (fief-holding cavalries) inAin Dara in the Jurd sent to collect taxes from southern Mount Lebanon. For the next twenty years, the Druze successfully beat back government attempts to collect taxes and confiscate weapons, while increasing their rifle arsenals. In 1585 the imperial authorities organized a much largercampaign against the Chouf and the Sidon-Beirut Sanjak in general led by thebeylerbey (provincial governor) ofEgypt,Ibrahim Pasha. It ended in a decisive government victory, the confiscation of thousands of rifles and the collection of tax arrears, which had been accruing for decades, in the form of currency or property.^[25] The most important leader in the Chouf at the time was a Ma'nid emir named Qurqumaz, possibly the son of Yunus,^[26][a] The modern historian Muhammad Adnan Bakhit holds this Yunus was likely the head of the Ma'nids at the time.^[28] A Ma'nid chief named Yunus was recorded by the contemporary poet Muhammad ibn Mami al-Rumi (d. 1579) to have been captured and hanged by the Ottomans at an undefined date as a result of unspecified complaints by theqadi (head judge) ofSidon to theSublime Porte.^[27][29] and possibly the grandson of the above-mentioned Qurqumaz.^[1] He had likely been the chieftain of the specific area of the Chouf referred to as "Shuf Ibn Ma'n", a subdistrict mentioned in Ottoman government documents from 1523, 1530, 1543 and 1576. His preeminence among the Ma'nids was possibly the result of the natural deaths or eliminations of the other Ma'nid chiefs.^[30] Like his father, Qurqumaz was amultazim (tax farmer) in the Chouf, though he resided in Ain Dara, and was recognized as amuqaddam of the Druze, his title of "emir" being used by local historians as a traditional honor rather than an official rank.^[31] Qurqumaz had refused to submit to Ibrahim Pasha and escaped the Chouf and died soon after in hiding.^[32]{{efn|According to theMaronite patriarch and historianIstifan al-Duwayhi (d. 1704), Qurqumaz was killed during a government expedition against the Chouf in 1585, precipitated by Qurqumaz's alleged orchestration of an attack the preceding year on a government convoy in Akkar that had been transporting the annualEgyptian tribute destined for the sultan inConstantinople^[33] The aftermath of the campaign and the death of Qurqumaz left the Druze Mountain in an anarchic state marked by internal fighting among the Druze.^[32]

Around 1590 Qurqumaz was succeeded by his eldest sonFakhr al-Din II as themuqaddam of all or part of the Chouf.^[35][36] Unlike his Ma'nid predecessors, Fakhr al-Din cooperated with the Ottomans, who, though able to suppress Mount Lebanon's local chiefs with massive force, were unable to pacify the region in the long term without local support.^[37] When the veteran generalMurad Pasha was appointedbeylerbey of Damascus, Fakhr al-Din hosted and gave him expensive gifts upon his arrival to Sidon in September 1593.^[38][39] Murad Pasha reciprocated by appointing him thesanjak-bey (district governor, calledamir liwa in Arabic sources) of Sidon-Beirut in December.^[37] The Ottomans' preoccupation with thewars against Safavid Iran (1578–1590; 1603–1618) and thewar with Hapsburg Austria afforded Fakhr al-Din the space to consolidate and expand his semi-autonomous power.^[40]

In July 1602,^[41] after his political patron Murad Pasha became a vizier inConstantinople,^[42] Fakhr al-Din was appointed thesanjak-bey ofSafed.^[43] With the Druze of Sidon-Beirut and Safed under his authority, he effectively became their paramount chief. Fakhr al-Din may have been appointed to the post to leverage his Druze power base against the Shia.^[44]

In 1606, Fakhr al-Din made common cause with theKurdish rebelAli Janbulad ofAleppo against his local rivalYusuf Sayfa ofTripoli; the latter had been invested ascommander-in-chief of the Ottoman armies in the Levant to suppress Janbulad.^[45] Fakhr al-Din may have been motivated by his ambitions of regional autonomy,^[46] defense of his territory from Sayfa, or expanding his control to Beirut and Keserwan, both held by Sayfa.^[47] The rebel allies besieged Sayfa in Damascus, eventually forcing his flight.^[48] In the course of the fighting, Fakhr al-Din took over the Keserwan.^[49] When Janbulad was defeated by the Ottomans, Fakhr al-Din appeased Murad Pasha, who had since become grand vizier, with substantial sums of cash and goods.^[47][50] The high amount is an indicator of the Ma'ns' wealth.^[50] Fakhr al-Din was kept assanjak-bey of Safed, his son Ali was appointed assanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut and the Ma'ns' control of Keserwan was recognized by the Porte.^[51]

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Fakhr al-Din lost imperial favor with the death of Murad Pasha in July 1611 and the succession ofNasuh Pasha.^[51] By then the Porte, freed up from the wars with Austria and Iran and theJelali revolts in Anatolia, had turned its attention to affairs in the Levant.^[52] The authorities had become wary of Fakhr al-Din's expanding territory, his alliance withGrand Duchy of Tuscany, his unsanctioned strengthening and garrisoning of fortresses and his employment of outlawedsekbans.^[53] Nasuh Pasha appointed Ahmed Pasha, the governor of Damascus, at the head of a large army to suppress Fakhr al-Din.^[54] The latter boarded a European ship and escaped toLivorno, Tuscany.^[55]

In Fakhr al-Din's absence his younger brother Yunus acted as head of the family in the Chouf. The Ma'ns'sekbans stationed in their headquarter village of Deir al-Qamar collaborated with Ahmed Pasha, prompting Yunus to abandon the village for Baakline.^[56] Ali Ma'n, meanwhile, was deserted by his bodyguard ofsekbans inMafraq in the Syrian Desert where he evaded Ahmed Pasha.^[57] The Ma'nid fortresses ofShaqif Arnun andSubayba, which the Ottomans sought to dismantle, were controlled by the family'ssekbans led by Husayn Yaziji and Husayn Tawil, respectively; with the help of the rivalHarfush dynasty ofBaalbek, thesekban commanders arranged the two fortresses' demolition and were rewarded by the authorities. The Ma'ns were stripped of their governorships of Sidon-Beirut, Safed, and Keserwan, but Yunus retained the tax farm of the Chouf from the governor of the newly createdSidon Eyalet in 1614. Their Druze and Shia rivals re-emerged as the tax farmers and governors of their home districts in Mount Lebanon and Jabal Amil.^[58]

Although the Ma'ns' position was severely weakened, in 1615 political circumstances changed in their favor with Nasuh Pasha being executed, Ahmed Pasha being replaced by a friendly governor, the Sidon Eyalet being dissolved, and troops being withdrawn from Syria to fight on the Iranian front. Yunus and Ali were appointed to Safed and Sidon-Beirut, respectively, and shortly after both governorships were given to Ali.^[59] The Ma'ns then confronted their Druze rivals, namelyMuzaffar al-Andari of the Jurd, theArslan chief Muhammad ibn Jamal al-Din ofChoueifat in the Gharb, and theSawwafs ofChbaniyeh in theMatn. Ali and Yunus defeated them in four engagements in the Druze Mountain, atIghmid,Ain Dara,Abeih and the spring of Naimeh on the coast south of Beirut. In the course of the fighting, they retook control of Beirut and the Keserwan. Afterward Ali awarded the Ma'ns' Tanukhid allies and relatives the tax farms of Beirut, the Gharb and the Jurd, and the Abu'l-Lama family the tax farm of the Matn.^[60]

Growing opposition to the Ma'ns by the Shias of Safed Sanjak culminated with their backing of Yaziji's efforts to replace Ali assanjak-bey there and their alliance with the Harfushes in 1617–1618. Yaziji was killed almost immediately after taking up office in Safed in June 1618, and Ali was restored to the post.^[61] Meanwhile, tensions rose between the Ma'ns and their Tanukhid andAbillama allies relating to property disputes in Beirut.^[62]

The Ottomans pardoned Fakhr al-Din and he returned to Mount Lebanon, arriving in Acre on 29 September 1618.^[61] Upon hearing of his return, the Ma'ns' Druze allies immediately reconciled with Ali and from that point there was no further active Druze opposition to Fakhr al-Din.^[62] Uneasy about the growing ties between the Harfushes and the Shia chiefs of Safed, he arrested the preeminent chief of the Shia in Jabal Amil, Ali Munkir, and released him after a ransom paid by Yunus al-Harfush.^[61] He moved to supervise the collection of taxes in Bilad Bishara in December, prompting the Shia notable families of Ali Saghir, Munkir, Shukr and Daghir to take refuge with Yunus al-Harfush and evade payment. Fakhr al-Din responded by destroying their homes. He then reconciled with the Jabal Amil chiefs and Shia levies thereafter joined his army in his later military campaigns.^[63]

Fakhr al-Din moved against the Sayfas in 1619, capturing and looted their stronghold ofHisn Akkar and four days later besieging Yusuf and the latter's Druze allies in the Krak des Chevaliers.^[64] He then sent a detachment to burn the Sayfas' home village ofAkkar and gained the defection of the Sayfa forts ofByblos andSmar Jbeil.^[65] Fakhr al-Din was compelled by Ottoman pressure to lift the siege, but during the hostilities had gained control of theByblos andBatroun nahiyas.^[66] Yusuf was dismissed in 1622 after failing to remit taxes to the Porte, but refused to hand over power to his replacement Umar Kittanji, who in turn requested Fakhr al-Din's military support. Fakhr al-Din complied in return for theiltizam of the Tripoli nahiyas ofDinniyeh,Bsharri and Akkar. Once Fakhr al-Din set out from Ghazir, Yusuf abandoned Tripoli for Akkar.^[67] The Emir thereafter sent his Maronite ally Abu Safi Khazen, the brother of hismudabbir (fiscal and political adviser, scribe) Abu Nadir Khazen, to occupy Maronite-populated Bsharri, thereby ending the rule of the local Maronitemuqaddams established since the late 14th century.^[68] In 1623 Fakhr al-Din mobilized his forces in Bsharri in support of Yusuf's rebellious nephew Sulayman, who controlledSafita. Fakhr al-Din's intervention confirmed the Ma'ns as the practical overlords of Safita.^[69]

In August/September 1623 Fakhr al-Din evicted the Harfushes from the southern Beqaa village ofQabb Ilyas for their prohibition on the Chouf Druze from cultivating their fields there.^[70] Meanwhile, in June/July the Porte had replaced Ali Ma'n assanjak-bey of Safed with a certain Bustanji Bashi and replaced his brother Husayn and the Ma'n loyalist Mustafa Kethuda as thesanjak-beys of Ajlun and Nablus with local opponents of the Ma'ns.^[71][72] The Porte soon after restored the Ma'ns to Ajlun and Nablus, but not to Safed. The Ma'ns thereupon moved to assume control of Ajlun and Nablus. Fakhr al-Din launched a campaign against the Turabays and Farrukhs in northern Palestine, but was defeated in a battle at theAwja River nearRamla. On his way back to Mount Lebanon from the abortive Palestine campaign, Fakhr al-Din was notified that the Porte reappointed his sons and allies to Safed, Ajlun and Nablus.^[73] The governor of Damascus, Mustafa Pasha, backed by the Harfushes and Sayfas, nonetheless proceeded to launch an expedition against the Ma'ns.^[74] Fakhr al-Din routed the Damascene force at Anjar and captured Mustafa Pasha.^[75][76] Fakhr al-Din extracted from thebeylerbey confirmation of the Ma'ns' gpvernorships and the additional appointments of himself overGaza Sanjak, his son Mansur over Lajjun Sanjak, and Ali over the southern Beqaa nahiya. The appointments to Gaza, Nablus and Lajjun were not implemented due to the opposition of local powerholders.^[77] Fakhr al-Din plundered Baalbek soon after Anjar and captured and destroyed its citadel on 28 March.^[78] Yunus al-Harfush was executed in 1625, the same year that Fakhr al-Din gained the governorship of the Baalbek nahiya.^[79]

By 1624, Fakhr al-Din and his allies among the Sayfas who defected from Yusuf was in control of most of the Tripoli Eyalet, except for Tripoli city, the Krak des Chevaliers, theKoura nahiya, and theJableh sanjak.^[80] A few months after Yusuf's death in July 1625, Fakhr al-Din launched an assault against Tripoli. He forced out his old ally Sulayman Sayfa from the Safita fortress and was later ceded the fortresses of Krak des Chevaliers andMarqab by Yusuf's sons.^[81] In September 1626 he captured the fortress ofSalamiyah, followed byHama andHoms, appointing his deputies to govern them.^[82] Fakhr al-Din was appointedbeylerbey of Tripoli in 1627, according solely to Duwayhi.^[83] By the early 1630s Fakhr al-Din captured many places around Damascus, controlled thirty fortresses, commanded a large army ofsekbans, and, according to a contemporary Ottoman historian, the "only thing left for him to do was to claim the Sultanate".^[84]

The imperial government appointedKuchuk Ahmed Pasha as governor of Damascus and fitted him with a large army to destroy Ma'nid power. Kuchuk first defeated and killed Ali nearKhan Hasbaya in Wadi al-Taym.^[85][86] Fakhr al-Din and his men subsequently took refuge in a cave inNiha in the southern Chouf or further south inJezzine.^[87] To smoke them out of their hiding places, Kuckuk started fires around the mountains. Fakhr al-Din consequently surrendered.^[88] His sons Mansur and Husayn, the latter of whom was stationed inMarqab, had already been captured by Kuchuk.^[89] His sons Hasan, Haydar, and Bulak, his brother Yunus and nephew Hamdan ibn Yunus were all executed by Kuckuk during the expedition.^[90] Fakhr al-Din was imprisoned in Constantinople and he and his son Mansur were executed in 1635 on the orders of Murad IV.^[88]

The Druze enemy of the Ma'ns,Ali Alam al-Din, was given authority over the Chouf by the Ottomans.^[91] A surviving member of the dynasty,Mulhim Ma'n, the son of Yunus and nephew of Fakhr al-Din, had evaded capture and led the Druze opposition to Alam al-Din, defeating him in a battle and forcing his flight to Damascus in 1635. Alam al-Din soon after defeated Mulhim in the Beqaa Valley,^[92] but Mulhim finally drove him out of the Chouf in 1636.^[92] The people of the Druze Mountain mostly backed him.^[93] In 1642 he was appointed by the Ottomans themultazim of the Chouf, Jurd, Gharb, and Matn, a position he largely held until 1657.^[94]

Following Mulhim's death, his sonsAhmad and Qurqumaz entered into a power struggle with Ottoman-backed Druze leaders. In 1660, the Ottoman Empire moved to reorganize the region, placing thesanjaks (districts) of Sidon-Beirut andSafed in a newly formedprovince of Sidon, a move seen by local Druze as an attempt to assert control.^[95] Contemporary historian Istifan al-Duwayhi reports that Korkmaz was killed in act of treachery by the Beylerbey of Damascus in 1662.^[95] Ahmad however escaped and eventually emerged victorious in the power struggle among the Druze in 1667, but the Maʿnīs lost control of Safad^[96] and retreated to controlling the iltizam of the Shuf mountains and Kisrawan.^[97] Ahmad continued as local ruler through his death from natural causes, without heir, in 1697.^[96] During theOttoman–Habsburg War (1683–1699), Ahmad Ma'n collaborated in a rebellion against the Ottomans which extended beyond his death.^[96] Iltizam rights in Chouf and Kisrawan passed to the risingShihab family through female-line inheritance.^[97]

The Ma'n palace in Tyre

Fakhr al-Din and his brother owned properties inTyre, all confiscated by Kuchuk, including a mulberry and fig orchard, a large residence, three mills, and a mulberry nursery.^[98] The residence belonged to Yunus. Its foundations were evidently built upon ruins from the Crusader period. The ruins are in the center of the present-day souk marketplace and are known as Khan Abdo al-Ashqar,^[99] Khan al-Askar,^[100][101] or Khan Sour. After a diplomatic mission sent by KingLouis XIII of France andCardinal Richelieu^[102] the Ma'nid palace in Tyre came under the ownership of theFranciscans.^[100]

In the late 18th century, under the rule of theMetwali governorAli al-Saghir, the palace was turned into a garrison. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was transformed into akhan. The ownership of the place was transferred at an unspecified point from the Franciscans to theMelkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Tyre.^[99][100] After thejoint British and FrenchOccupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) was declared on 23 October 1918 and Jabal Amil came under French control, theFrench Army used the palace as a base until the joint British-Free FrenchSyria–Lebanon campaign captured the city fromVichy troops in mid-1941.^[101]

When Israel launched itsinvasion of southern Lebanon in June 1982, theIsraeli Air Force (IAF) heavily bombed the market area and partly destroyed the palace.^[101] In 2003,Randa Berri, president of theNational Association for the Preservation of South Lebanon’s Archaeology and Heritage and wife ofNabih Berri, veteran leader of theAmal Movement andSpeaker of theParliament of Lebanon, patronized a plan to renovate the Ma'nid palace and convert it into a museum.^[103] As of 2019, nothing was done in that regard and the ruins have kept on crumbling.

• Mount Lebanon Emirate
• Vanguard of the Maani Army (Movement of the Druze Jihad)

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• Ma'n dynasty
• Lebanese noble families

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