MESSENGER was launched aboard aDelta II rocket in August 2004. Its path involved a complex series offlybys – the spacecraft flew byEarth once,Venus twice, and Mercury itself three times, allowing it to decelerate relative to Mercury using minimal fuel. During its first flyby of Mercury in January 2008,MESSENGER became the second mission, afterMariner 10 in 1975, to reach Mercury.[11][12][13]
MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury on March 18, 2011, becoming the first spacecraft to do so.[9] It successfully completed its primary mission in 2012.[2] Following two mission extensions, the spacecraft used the last of its maneuvering propellant to deorbit, impacting the surface of Mercury on April 30, 2015.[14]
MESSENGER's formal data collection mission began on April 4, 2011.[15] The primary mission was completed on March 17, 2012, having collected close to 100,000 images.[16]MESSENGER achieved 100% mapping of Mercury on March 6, 2013, and completed its first year-long extended mission on March 17, 2013.[2] The probe's second extended mission lasted for over two years, but as its low orbit degraded, it required reboosts to avoid impact. It conducted its final reboost burns on October 24, 2014, and January 21, 2015, before crashing into Mercury on April 30, 2015.[17][18][19]
During its stay in Mercury orbit, the probe's instruments yielded significant data, including a characterization of Mercury's magnetic field[20] and the discovery of waterice at the planet's north pole,[21][22] which had long been suspected on the basis of Earth-based radar data.[23]
In 1973,Mariner 10 was launched by NASA to make multiple flyby encounters of Venus and Mercury. Mariner 10 provided the first detailed data of Mercury, mapping 40–45% of the surface.[24] Mariner 10's final flyby of Mercury occurred on March 16, 1975. No subsequent close-range observations of the planet would take place for more than 30 years.
In 1998, a study detailed a proposed mission to send an orbiting spacecraft to Mercury, as the planet was at that point the least-explored of the inner planets. In the years following the Mariner 10 mission, subsequent mission proposals to revisit Mercury had appeared too costly, requiring large quantities of propellant and aheavy lift launch vehicle. Moreover, inserting a spacecraft into orbit around Mercury is difficult, because a probe approaching on a direct path from Earth would be accelerated by theSun's gravity and pass Mercury far too quickly to orbit it. However, using a trajectory designed by Chen-wan Yen[25] in 1985, the study showed it was possible to execute aDiscovery-class mission by using multiple, consecutive gravity assist, 'swingby' maneuvers around Venus and Mercury, in combination with minor propulsive trajectory corrections, to gradually slow the spacecraft and thereby minimize propellant needs.[26]
TheMESSENGER mission was designed to study the characteristics and environment of Mercury from orbit. The scientific objectives of the mission were:[27][28]
to characterize the chemical composition of Mercury's surface.
to study the planet's geologic history.
to elucidate the nature of the global magnetic field (magnetosphere).
TheMESSENGER spacecraft was designed and built at theJohns Hopkins UniversityApplied Physics Laboratory. Science operations were managed bySean Solomon as principal investigator, and mission operations were also conducted at JHU/APL.[29] TheMESSENGERbus measured 1.85 meters (73 in) tall, 1.42 m (56 in) wide, and 1.27 m (50 in) deep. The bus was primarily constructed with fourgraphite fiber /cyanate ester composite panels that supported the propellant tanks, the large velocity adjust (LVA) thruster, attitude monitors and correction thrusters, the antennas, the instrument pallet, and a large ceramic-cloth sunshade, measuring 2.5 m (8.2 ft) tall and 2 m (6.6 ft) wide, for passive thermal control.[29] At launch, the spacecraft weighed approximately 1,100 kilograms (2,400 lb) with its full load of propellant.[30]MESSENGER's total mission cost, including the cost of the spacecraft's construction, was estimated at under US$450 million.[31]
Main propulsion was provided by the 645 N, 317 sec.Ispbipropellant (hydrazine andnitrogen tetroxide) large velocity assist (LVA) thruster. The model used was theLEROS 1b, developed and manufactured at AMPAC‐ISP's Westcott works, in the United Kingdom. The spacecraft was designed to carry 607.8 kilograms (1,340 lb) of propellant andhelium pressurizer for the LVA.[29]
The probe included twosmall deep space transponders for communications with theDeep Space Network and three kinds of antennas: a high gain phased array whose main beam could be electronically steered in one plane, a medium-gain "fan-beam" antenna and a low gain horn with a broad pattern. The high gain antenna was used as transmit-only at 8.4 GHz, the medium-gain and low gain antennas transmit at 8.4 GHz and receive at 7.2 GHz, and all three antennas operate with right-hand circularly polarized (RHCP) radiation. One of each of these antennas was mounted on the front of the probe facing the Sun, and one of each was mounted to the back of the probe facing away from the Sun.[32]
The space probe was powered by a two-panelgallium arsenide/germaniumsolar array providing an average of 450watts while in Mercury orbit. Each panel was rotatable and included optical solar reflectors to balance the temperature of the array. Power was stored in a common-pressure-vessel, 23-ampere-hournickel–hydrogen battery, with 11 vessels and two cells per vessel.[29]
The spacecraft's onboard computer system was contained in an Integrated Electronics Module (IEM), a device that combined coreavionics into a single box. The computer featured tworadiation-hardenedIBM RAD6000s, a 25 megahertz main processor, and a 10 MHz fault protection processor. For redundancy, the spacecraft carried a pair of identical IEMs. Fordata storage, the spacecraft carried twosolid-state recorders able to store up to onegigabyte each. The IBM RAD6000 main processor collected,compressed, and stored data fromMESSENGER's instruments for later playback to Earth.[29]
MESSENGER used a software suite calledSciBox to simulate its orbit and instruments, in order to "choreograph the complicated process of maximizing the scientific return from the mission and minimizing conflicts between instrument observations, while at the same time meeting all spacecraft constraints on pointing, data downlink rates, and onboard data storage capacity."[33]
Included twoCCD cameras, a narrow-angle camera (NAC) and a wide-angle camera (WAC) mounted to a pivoting platform. The camera system provided a complete map of the surface of Mercury at a resolution of 250 meters/pixel (820 ft/pixel), and images of regions of geologic interest at 20–50 meters/pixel (66–164 ft/pixel). Color imaging was possible only with the narrow-band filter wheel attached to the wide-angle camera.[34][35]
Provide surface abundances of Fe, Si, and K, infer alkali depletion from K abundances, and provide abundance limits on H (water ice) and S (if present) at the poles.
Map surface element abundances where possible, and otherwise provide surface-averaged abundances or establish upper limits.
Principal investigator: William Boynton / University of Arizona
Determined the hydrogen mineral composition to a depth of 40 cm by detecting low-energy neutrons resulting from the collision of cosmic rays with the minerals.[37][38]
Establish and map the abundance of hydrogen over most of the northern hemisphere of Mercury.
Investigate the possible presence of water ice within and near permanently shaded craters near the north pole.
Provide secondary evidence to aid in interpreting GRS measured gamma-ray line strengths in terms of elemental abundances.
Outline surface domains at the base of both northern and southern cusps of the magnetosphere where the solar wind can implant hydrogen in surface material.
Principal investigator: William Boynton / University of Arizona
Provided detailed information regarding the height of landforms on the surface of Mercury by detecting the light of an infrared laser as the light bounced off the surface.[43][44]
Determined the characteristics of thetenuous atmosphere surrounding Mercury by measuring ultraviolet light emissions, and ascertained the prevalence of iron and titanium minerals on the surface by measuring thereflectance of infrared light.[45][46]
Measured thecharged particles in themagnetosphere around Mercury using an energetic particle spectrometer (EPS) and the charged particles that come from the surface using a fast imaging plasma spectrometer (FIPS).[48][49]
Determine the position of the spacecraft during both the cruise and orbital phases of the mission.
Observe gravitational perturbations from Mercury to investigate the spatial variations of density within the planet's interior, and a time-varying component in Mercury's gravity to quantify the amplitude of Mercury'slibration.
Provide precise measurements of the range of theMESSENGER spacecraft to the surface of Mercury for determining proper altitude mapping with the MLA.
Principal investigator: David Smith / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Images of the spacecraft
Diagram ofMESSENGER.
The assembly ofMESSENGER's solar panels by APL technicians.
Technicians prepareMESSENGER for transfer to a hazardous processing facility.
Attachment of thePAM toMESSENGER. The ceramic-cloth sunshade is prominent in this view.
A suited worker looks over thehydrazine fuel supply to be loaded inMESSENGER.
TheMESSENGER probe was launched on August 3, 2004, at 06:15:56 UTC byNASA fromSpace Launch Complex 17B at theCape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, aboard aDelta II 7925 launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted 57 minutes bringing the spacecraft into a heliocentric orbit, with a final velocity of 10.68 km/s (6.64 miles/s) and sending the probe into a 7.9 billion-kilometer (4.9 billion mi) trajectory that took 6 years, 7 months and 16 days before its orbital insertion on March 18, 2011.[29]
Traveling to Mercury and entering orbit requires an extremely large velocity change (seedelta-v) because Mercury's orbit is deep in the Sun'sgravity well. On a direct course from Earth to Mercury, a spacecraft is constantly accelerated as it falls toward the Sun, and will arrive at Mercury with a velocity too high to achieve orbit without excessive use of fuel. For planets with an atmosphere, such asVenus andMars, spacecraft can minimize their fuel consumption upon arrival by using friction with the atmosphere to enter orbit (aerocapture), or can briefly fire their rocket engines to enter into orbit followed by a reduction of the orbit byaerobraking. However, the tenuousatmosphere of Mercury is far too thin for these maneuvers. Instead,MESSENGER extensively usedgravity assist maneuvers at Earth, Venus, and Mercury to reduce the speed relative to Mercury, then used its large rocket engine to enter into an elliptical orbit around the planet. The multi-flyby process greatly reduced the amount of propellant necessary to slow the spacecraft, but at the cost of prolonging the trip by many years and to a total distance of 7.9 billion kilometers (4.9 billion miles).
Several planned thruster firings en route to Mercury were unnecessary, because these fine course adjustments were performed using solar radiation pressure acting on MESSENGER's solar panels.[58] To further minimize the amount of necessary propellant, the spacecraft orbital insertion targeted a highlyelliptical orbit around Mercury.
The elongated orbit had two other benefits: It allowed the spacecraft time to cool after the times it was between the hot surface of Mercury and the Sun, and also it allowed the spacecraft to measure the effects ofsolar wind and the magnetic fields of the planet at various distances while still allowing close-up measurements and photographs of the surface and exosphere.The spacecraft was originally scheduled to launch during a 12-day window that beginning May 11, 2004. On March 26, 2004, NASA announced the launch would be moved to a later, 15-day launch window beginning July 30, 2004, to allow for further testing of the spacecraft.[59] This change significantly altered the trajectory of the mission and delayed the arrival at Mercury by two years. The original plan called for three fly-by maneuvers past Venus, with Mercury orbit insertion scheduled for 2009. The trajectory was changed to include one Earth flyby, two Venus flybys, and three Mercury flybys beforeorbit insertion on March 18, 2011.[60]
Exploded diagram of Delta II launch vehicle withMESSENGER
The launch ofMESSENGER on a Delta II launch vehicle.
Animation ofMESSENGER's trajectory from August 3, 2004, to May 1, 2015 MESSENGER·Earth·Mercury·Venus
Interplanetary trajectory of theMESSENGER orbiter.
MESSENGER performed an Earthflyby one year after launch, on August 2, 2005, with the closest approach at 19:13UTC at an altitude of 2,347 kilometers (1,458 statute miles) over centralMongolia. On December 12, 2005, a 524-second-long burn (Deep-Space Maneuver or DSM-1) of the large thruster adjusted the trajectory for the upcoming Venus flyby by 316 m/s.[61]
During the Earth flyby, theMESSENGER team imaged the Earth and Moon using MDIS and checked the status of several other instruments observing the atmospheric and surface compositions and testing the magnetosphere and determining that all instruments tested were working as expected. This calibration period was intended to ensure accurate interpretation of data when the spacecraft entered orbit around Mercury. Ensuring that the instruments functioned correctly at such an early stage in the mission allowed opportunity for multiple minor errors to be dealt with.[62]
The Earth flyby was used to investigate theflyby anomaly, where some spacecraft have been observed to have trajectories that differ slightly from those predicted. However no anomaly was observed in MESSENGER's flyby.[63]
A view of Earth fromMESSENGER during its Earth flyby.
A view of Earth fromMESSENGER during its Earth flyby.
TheEarth andMoon (lower left), captured byMESSENGER from a distance of 183 million kilometers.
Earth flyby sequence captured on August 3, 2005 (Full-size video).
On October 24, 2006, at 08:34 UTC,MESSENGER encountered Venus at an altitude of 2,992 kilometers (1,859 mi). During the encounter,MESSENGER passed behind Venus and enteredsuperior conjunction, a period when Earth was on the exact opposite side of the Solar System, with the Sun inhibiting radio contact. For this reason, no scientific observations were conducted during the flyby. Communication with the spacecraft was reestablished in late November and performed a deep space maneuver on December 12, 2006, to correct the trajectory to encounter Venus in a second flyby.[64]
On June 5, 2007, at 23:08 UTC,MESSENGER performed a second flyby of Venus at an altitude of 338 km (210 mi), for the greatest velocity reduction of the mission. During the encounter, all instruments were used to observe Venus and prepare for the following Mercury encounters. The encounter provided visible andnear-infrared imaging data of the upperatmosphere of Venus.Ultraviolet and X-rayspectrometry of the upper atmosphere were also recorded, to characterize the composition. TheESA'sVenus Express was also orbiting during the encounter, providing the first opportunity for simultaneous measurement of particle-and-field characteristics of the planet.[65]
Venus imaged byMESSENGER on its first flyby of the planet in 2006.
Venus imaged byMESSENGER on its second flyby of the planet in 2007.
A more detailed image of VenusMESSENGER on the second flyby of the planet.
Sequence of images asMESSENGER departs after the second flyby of the planet.
MESSENGER made a flyby of Mercury on January 14, 2008 (making its closest approach of 200 km above the surface of Mercury at 19:04:39UTC), followed by a second flyby on October 6, 2008.[11]MESSENGER executed a final flyby on September 29, 2009, further slowing down the spacecraft.[12][13] Sometime during the closest approach of the last flyby, the spacecraft enteredsafe mode. Although this had no effect on the trajectory necessary for later orbit insertion, it resulted in the loss of science data and images that were planned for the outbound leg of the fly-by. The spacecraft had fully recovered by about seven hours later.[66] One last deep space maneuver, DSM-5, was executed on November 24, 2009, at 22:45 UTC to provide the required 0.177 kilometres per second (0.110 mi/s) velocity change for the scheduled Mercury orbit insertion on March 18, 2011, marking the beginning of the orbital mission.[67]
The first high-resolution color Wide Angle Camera image of Mercury acquired byMESSENGER.
Mercury from later in the first flyby, showing many previously unknown features
View from the second flyby in October 2008, with Kuiper crater near center
Smooth plains ofBorealis Planitia imaged byMESSENGER during the third flyby of the planet.
An image of part of the previously unseen side of the planet.
Lava-flooded craters and large expanses of smooth volcanic plains on Mercury.
The thruster maneuver to insert the probe into Mercury's orbit began at 00:45 UTC on March 18, 2011. The 0.9 km/s (0.5 mi./sec.) braking maneuver lasted about 15 minutes, with confirmation that the craft was in Mercury orbit received at 01:10 UTC on March 18 (9:10 PM, March 17 EDT).[57] Mission lead engineer Eric Finnegan indicated that the spacecraft had achieved a near-perfect orbit.[68]
MESSENGER's orbit was highly elliptical, taking it within 200 kilometers (120 miles) of Mercury's surface and then 15,000 km (9,300 miles) away from it every twelve hours. This orbit was chosen to shield the probe from the heat radiated by Mercury's hot surface. Only a small portion of each orbit was at a low altitude, where the spacecraft was subjected to radiative heating from the hot side of the planet.[69]
AfterMESSENGER's orbital insertion, an eighteen-day commissioning phase took place. The supervising personnel switched on and tested the craft's science instruments to ensure they had completed the journey without damage.[70] The commissioning phase "demonstrated that the spacecraft and payload [were] all operating nominally, notwithstanding Mercury's challenging environment."[33]
The primary mission began as planned on April 4, 2011, withMESSENGER orbiting Mercury once every twelve hours for an intended duration of twelve Earth months, the equivalent of twosolar days on Mercury.[33] Principal Investigator Sean Solomon, then of theCarnegie Institution of Washington, said: "With the beginning today of the primary science phase of the mission, we will be making nearly continuous observations that will allow us to gain the first global perspective on the innermost planet. Moreover, as solar activity steadily increases, we will have a front-row seat on the most dynamic magnetosphere–atmosphere system in the Solar System."[33]
On October 5, 2011, the scientific results obtained byMESSENGER during its first six terrestrial months in Mercury's orbit were presented in a series of papers at the European Planetary Science Congress inNantes, France. Among the discoveries presented were the unexpectedly high concentrations ofmagnesium andcalcium found in theatmosphere of Mercury's nightside, and the fact that Mercury'smagnetic field is offset far to the north of the planet's center.[20]
Amonochrome image of Mercury fromMESSENGER, withWarhol at center.
A close snapshot of ridges near Mercury's south pole.
Afalse-colorMESSENGER composite image of Mercury shows previously undetected fault scarps— cliff-like landforms resembling stairs that are small enough that scientists believe they are geologically young. This shows that Mercury is still contracting, and that Earth is not the only tectonically active Solar System planet.
Topography of Mercury based on MDIS (Mercury Dual Imaging System) data
In November 2011, NASA announced that theMESSENGER mission would be extended by one year, allowing the spacecraft to observe the 2012solar maximum.[1] Its extended mission began on March 17, 2012, and continued until March 17, 2013. Between April 16 and 20, 2012,MESSENGER carried out a series of thruster manoeuvres, placing it in an eight-hour orbit to conduct further scans of Mercury.[71]
In November 2012, NASA reported thatMESSENGER had discovered a possibility of bothwater ice and organic compounds in permanently shadowed craters in Mercury's north pole.[21][72][73] In February 2013, NASA published the most detailed and accurate 3D map of Mercury to date, assembled from thousands of images taken byMESSENGER.[74][75]MESSENGER completed its first extended mission on March 17, 2013,[2] and its second lasted until April 2015.[19] In November 2013,MESSENGER was among the numerous space assets that imagedComet Encke (2P/Encke) andComet ISON (C/2012 S1).[76][77][78] As its orbit began to decay in early 2015,MESSENGER was able to take highly detailed close-up photographs of ice-filled craters and other landforms at Mercury's north pole.[79] After the mission was completed, review of the radio ranging data provided the first measurement of the rate of mass loss from the Sun.[80]
False-color map showing maximum temperatures of north polar region.
On July 3, 2008, theMESSENGER team announced that the probe had discovered large amounts of water present in Mercury'sexosphere, which was an unexpected finding.[83] In the later years of its mission,MESSENGER also provided visual evidence of past volcanic activity on the surface of Mercury,[84] as well as evidence for a liquid ironplanetary core.[83] The probe also constructed the most detailed and accurate maps of Mercury to date, and furthermore discovered carbon-containingorganic compounds and water ice inside permanently shadowed craters near the north pole.[85]
On February 18, 2011, a portrait of the Solar System was published on theMESSENGER website. The mosaic contained 34 images, acquired by the MDIS instrument during November 2010. All the planets were visible with the exception ofUranus andNeptune, due to their vast distances from the Sun. TheMESSENGER "family portrait" was intended to be complementary to theVoyager family portrait, which was acquired from the outer Solar System byVoyager 1 on February 14, 1990.[86]
MESSENGER captured a near-complete portrait of theSolar System during November 2010.
A lunar eclipse as viewed from Mercury, captured from theMESSENGER spacecraft. TheMoon can be seen falling into the shadow of Earth.
On October 8, 2014 from 9:18 UTC to 10:18 UTC,MESSENGER took 31 images, taken two minutes apart, of the Earth and the Moon, as the Moon underwent atotal lunar eclipse. MESSENGER was 107 million kilometers (66 million miles) from the Earth at the time of the lunar eclipse. The Earth is about 5 pixels across and the Moon is just over 1 pixel across in the field of view of the NAC, with about 40 pixels distance between them. The images are zoomed by a factor of two and the Moon's brightness has been increased by a factor of about 25 to show its disappearance more clearly. This was the first observation of alunar eclipse, of Earth's Moon, in history to be viewed from another planet.[87][17]
After running out ofpropellant for course adjustments,MESSENGER entered its expected terminal phase of orbital decay in late 2014. The spacecraft's operation was extended by several weeks by exploiting its remaining supply of helium gas, which was used to pressurize its propellant tanks, asreaction mass.[88]MESSENGER continued studying Mercury during its decay period.[3] The spacecraftcrashed onto the surface of Mercury on April 30, 2015, at 3:26 p.m.EDT (19:26 GMT), at a velocity of 14,080 km/h (8,750 mph), probably creating a crater in the planet's surface approximately 16 m (52 ft) wide.[18][89] The spacecraft was estimated to have impacted at 54.4° N, 149.9° W onSuisei Planitia, near the craterJanáček.[90] The crash occurred at a place not visible from Earth at the time, and thus was not detected by any observers or instruments. NASA confirmed the end of theMESSENGER mission at 3:40 p.m. EDT (19:40 GMT) after NASA'sDeep Space Network did not detect the spacecraft's reemergence from behind Mercury.[89][91]
MESSENGER's first (March 29, 2011) and last (April 30, 2015) images from Mercury's orbit (impact details).
^abHawkins, S. Edward; John D. Boldt; Edward H. Darlington; Raymond Espiritu; Robert E. Gold; Bruce Gotwols; Matthew P. Grey; Christopher D. Hash; John R. Hayes; Steven E. Jaskulek; et al. (August 1, 2007). "The Mercury Dual Imaging System on the MESSENGER spacecraft".Space Science Reviews.131 (1–4):247–338.Bibcode:2007SSRv..131..247H.doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9266-3.S2CID36163654.
^abcdGoldsten, John O.; Edgar A. Rhodes; William V. Boynton; William C. Feldman; David J. Lawrence; Jacob I. Trombka; David M. Smith; Larry G. Evans; Jack White; Norman W. Madden; et al. (November 8, 2007). "The MESSENGER Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer".Space Science Reviews.131 (1–4):339–391.Bibcode:2007SSRv..131..339G.doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9262-7.S2CID120008625.
^abSchlemm, Charles; Richard D. Starr; George C. Ho; Kathryn E. Bechtold; Sarah A. Hamilton; John D. Boldt; William V. Boynton; Walter Bradley; Martin E. Fraeman; Robert E. Gold; et al. (2007). "The X-Ray Spectrometer on the MESSENGER Spacecraft".Space Science Reviews.131 (1):393–415.Bibcode:2007SSRv..131..393S.doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9248-5.S2CID123515990.
^"Magnetometer (MAG)". NASA / National Space Science Data Center. RetrievedFebruary 19, 2011.
^abCavanaugh, John F.; James C. Smith; Xiaoli Sun; Arlin E. Bartels; Luis Ramos-Izquierdo; Danny J. Krebs; Jan F. McGarry; Raymond Trunzo; Anne Marie Novo-Gradac; Jamie L. Britt; et al. (2007). "The Mercury Laser Altimeter Instrument for the MESSENGER Mission".Space Science Reviews.131 (1):451–479.Bibcode:2007SSRv..131..451C.doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9273-4.hdl:2060/20060020062.S2CID18848880.
^abAndrews, G. Bruce; Thomas H. Zurbuchen; Barry H. Mauk; Horace Malcom; Lennard A. Fisk; George Gloeckler; George C. Ho; Jeffrey S. Kelley; Patrick L. Koehn; Thomas W. LeFevere; et al. (2007). "The Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer Instrument on the MESSENGER Spacecraft".Space Science Reviews.131 (1):523–556.Bibcode:2007SSRv..131..523A.doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9272-5.S2CID121878222.
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Missions are ordered by launch date.† indicates failure en route or before any data returned.‡ indicates use of the planet as agravity assist en route to another destination.
Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ). Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses).
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