From top, left to right: Buildings on the Nile banks, statue ofRamses II, Luxor Maritim Jolie Ville,Luxor Temple,Luxor Museum, Aerial view of Luxor, Luxor Corniche
Luxor has frequently been characterized as the ''world's greatest open-air museum'', as the ruins of theEgyptian temple complexes atKarnak andLuxor stand within the modern city. Immediately opposite, across theRiver Nile, lie the monuments, temples and tombs of the West BankTheban Necropolis, which includes theValley of the Kings and theValley of the Queens. Thousands of tourists from all around the world arrive annually to visit Luxor's monuments, contributing greatly to the economy of the modern city.Yusuf Abu al-Haggag is the prominent Muslim historical figure of Luxor.
The nameLuxor[b] derives from the Arabicقصرqaṣr, meaning "castle" or "palace", in the plural formal-quṣūr (“the palaces").[5][6][c] It may be equivalent to the Greek and Coptic toponym τὰ Τρία Κάστραta tria kastra and ⲡϣⲟⲙⲧ ⲛ̀ⲕⲁⲥⲧⲣⲟⲛpshomt enkastron respectively, which both mean "three castles".[8]
TheSahidic Coptic namePape[d][8] comes from DemoticỈp.t meaning 'theadyton,' which, in turn, is derived from theEgyptian. The Greek formsἈπις andὨφιεῖον come from the same source.[8] The Egyptian village ofAba al-Waqf[e] shares the same etymology.[9]
The Greek name is Thebes (Ancient Greek:Θῆβαι) or Diospolis. TheEgyptian name of the city isWaset, also known asNut (Coptic:ⲛⲏ),[10] written as
Luxor was the ancient city ofThebes, the capital ofUpper Egypt during theNew Kingdom, and the city ofAmun, later to become the god Amun-Ra. The city was regarded in the ancient Egyptian texts aswAs.t (approximate pronunciation: "Waset"), which meant "city of the sceptre", and later inDemotic Egyptian asta jpt (conventionally pronounced as "tA ipt" and meaning "the shrine/temple", referring to the jpt-swt, the temple now known by its Arabic nameKarnak, meaning "fortified village"), which the ancient Greeks adapted as Thebai and the Romans after them as Thebae. Thebes was also known as "the city of the 100 gates", sometimes being called "southern Heliopolis" ('Iunu-shemaa' in Ancient Egyptian), to distinguish it from the city ofIunu orHeliopolis, the main place of worship for the god Ra in the north. It was also often referred to asniw.t, which simply means "city", and was one of only three cities in Egypt for which this noun was used (the other two wereMemphis and Heliopolis); it was also calledniw.t rst, "southern city", as the southernmost of them.
The importance of Luxor started as early as the11th Dynasty, when the community grew into a thriving city.[11]Montuhotep II, who united Egypt after the troubles of theFirst Intermediate Period, brought stability to the lands as the city grew in stature. The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom in their expeditions toKush, in today's northernSudan, and to the lands ofCanaan,Phoenicia andSyria saw the city accumulate great wealth and rose to prominence, even on a world scale.[11] Thebes played a major role in expelling the invading forces of theHyksos from Upper Egypt, and from the time of the18th Dynasty to the20th Dynasty, the city had risen as the political, religious and military capital of Ancient Egypt.
However, as the city of the god Amun-Ra, Thebes remained the religious capital of Egypt until the Greek period.[11] The main god of the city was Amun, who was worshipped together with his wife, the GoddessMut, and their sonKhonsu, the God of the moon. With the rise of Thebes as the foremost city of Egypt, the local god Amun rose in importance as well and became linked to the sun god Ra, thus creating the new 'king of gods' Amun-Ra. Hisgreat temple at Karnak, just north of Thebes, was the most important temple of Egypt right until the end of antiquity.
Later, the city was attacked byAssyrian emperorAshurbanipal who installed a new prince on the throne,Psamtik I.[11] The city of Thebes was in ruins and fell in significance. However,Alexander the Great did arrive at the temple of Amun, where the statue of the god was transferred from Karnak during theOpet Festival, the great religious feast.[11] Thebes remained a site of spirituality up to the Christian era, and attracted numerous Christian monks of theRoman Empire who established monasteries amidst several ancient monuments including the temple ofHatshepsut, now calledDeir el-Bahri ("the northern monastery").[11]
Following theMuslim conquest of Egypt, part of the Luxor Temple was converted from a church to a mosque. This mosque is currently known as theAbu Haggag Mosque today.
The 18th century saw an increase of Europeans visiting Luxor, with some publishing their travels and documenting its surroundings, such asClaude Sicard,Granger,Frederick Louis Norden,Richard Pococke,Vivant Denon and others. By the 20th century, Luxor had become a major tourist destination.
In April 2018, the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of the shrine of godOsiris: Ptah Neb, dating back to the 25th dynasty in theTemple of Karnak. According to archaeologist Essam Nagy, the material remains from the area contained clay pots, the lower part of a sitting statue and part of a stone panel showing an offering table filled with a sheep and a goose which were the symbols of the god Amun.[12][13][14]
On the same day in November 2018, two different discoveries were announced. One was by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities that had found a 13th-century tomb on the West Bank belonging to Thaw-Irkhet-If, the overseer of the mummification shrine at the temple ofMut, and his wife.[15] Five months of excavation work until this point had revealed colorful scenes of the family and 1,000 funerary statues orushabti.[15] The other discovery was of 1000ushabti and two sarcophagi each containing a mummy in theTT33 complex by a joint team from the IFAO (French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, Cairo, Egypt) and theUniversity of Strasbourg.[15][16] One of the sarcophagi was opened in private by Egyptian antiquities officials, while the other, of a female18th Dynasty woman named Thuya, was opened in front of international media.[15][17][18]
In October 2019, Egyptian archaeologists headed byZahi Hawass revealed an ancient "industrial area" used to manufacture decorative artefacts, furniture and pottery for royal tombs. The site contained a big kiln to fire ceramics and 30 ateliers. According to Zahi Hawass, each atelier had a different aim – some of them were used to make pottery, others used to produce gold artefacts and others still to churn out furniture. About 75 meters below the valley, several items believed to have adorned wooden royal coffins, such as inlaid beads, silver rings and gold foil were unearthed. Some artefacts depicted the wings of deityHorus.[19][20]
In October 2019, the Egyptian archaeological mission unearthed thirty well-preserved woodencoffins (3,000 years old) in front of theMortuary Temple of Hatshepsut inEl-Assasif Cemetery. The coffins contained mummies of twenty-three adult males, five adult females and two children, who are believed to be from the middle class. According to Hawass, mummies were decorated with mixed carvings and designs, including scenes fromEgyptian gods,hieroglyphs, and theBook of the Dead, a series of spells that allowed the soul to navigate in theafterlife. Some of the coffins had the names of the dead engraved on them.[21][22][23][24]
On 8 April 2021, Egyptian archaeologists led by Zahi Hawass foundAten, a 3,400-year-old "lost golden city" near Luxor. It is the largest known city from Ancient Egypt to be unearthed to date. The site was said byBetsy Bryan, professor of Egyptology at Johns Hopkins University to be "the second most important archaeological discovery since the tomb of Tutankhamun".[25] The site is celebrated by the unearthing crew for showing a glimpse into the ordinary lives of living ancient Egyptians whereas past archaeological discoveries were from tombs and other burial sites. Many artefacts are found alongside the buildings such as pottery dated back to the reign of Amenhotep III, rings and everyday working tools. The site is not completely unearthed as of the 10th of April 2021.[25]
A panoramic view of the interior of the Luxor temple, just inside the entrance. TheAbu Haggag Mosque, built over the ruins, is on the left.A panoramic view of the greathypostyle hall in the Precinct of Amun Re
Approximately 4,000 years ago, a significant alteration in the geography of theNile River occurred, particularly in the region near modern-day Luxor. This transformation involved the expansion of thefloodplain, which increased the availability ofarable land. This geographic and environmental shift likely played a crucial role in supporting the agricultural productivity that underpinned the prosperity and stability of ancient Egyptian civilization during that period and over the years.[26]
Luxor has ahot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) like the rest of Egypt.Aswan and Luxor have the hottest summer days of any other city inEgypt. Aswan and Luxor have nearly the same climate. Luxor is one of the sunniest and driest cities in the world. Average high temperatures are above 40 °C (104 °F) during summer (June, July, August). During the coolest month of the year, average high temperatures remain above 22 °C (71.6 °F) while average low temperatures remain above 5 °C (41 °F).
The climate of Luxor has precipitation levels lower than even most other places in theSahara, with less than 1 mm (0.04 in) of average annual precipitation. The desert city is one of the driest ones in the world, and rainfall does not occur every year. The air in Luxor is more humid than Aswan but still very dry. There is an average relative humidity of 39.9%, with a maximum mean of 57% during winter and a minimum mean of 27% during summer.
The climate of Luxor is extremely clear, bright and sunny year-round, in all seasons, with a low seasonal variation, with about some 4,000 hours of annual sunshine, very close to the maximum theoretical sunshine duration.
In addition, Luxor,Minya,Sohag,Qena andAsyut have the widest difference of temperatures between days and nights of any city inEgypt, with almost 16 °C (29 °F) difference.
The hottest temperature recorded was on May 15, 1991, which was 50 °C (122 °F) and the coldest temperature was on February 6, 1989, which was −1 °C (30 °F).[27]
Amba Andraos Ghattas,Lazarists (C.M.) (May 8, 1967 – June 9, 1986), also Apostolic Administrator of Alexandria of the Copts (Egypt) (February 24, 1984 – June 9, 1986), President of Synod of the Catholic Coptic Church (1985 – March 30, 2006), President of Assembly of the Catholic Hierarchy of Egypt (1985 – March 30, 2006), laterCoptic Catholic Patriarch of Alexandria (June 23, 1986 – retired March 30, 2006), createdCardinal-Patriarch (February 21, 2001 – died January 20, 2009), also President of Council of Catholic Patriarchs of the East (2003–2006)
The economy of Luxor, like that of many other Egyptian cities, is heavily dependent on tourism. Since 1988, Luxor is the only city that offershot air balloon rides in Egypt, which is a common activity for tourists. Large numbers of people also work in agriculture, particularlysugarcane. There are also many industries, such as the pottery industry used in eating and many other uses.
The local economy was hit by theLuxor massacre in 1997, in which a total of 64 people (including 59 visiting tourists) were killed, at the time the worst terrorist attack in Egypt (before theSharm el-Sheikh terrorist attacks).[30] The massacre reduced tourist numbers for several years.[31] Following the 2011Arab Spring, tourism to Egypt dropped significantly, again affecting local tourist markets. Nineteen Asian and European tourists died when ahot air balloon crashed early on Tuesday, February 26, 2013 near Luxor following a mid-air gas explosion. It was one of the worst accidents involving tourists in Egypt. The casualties included French, British, Hungarian, Japanese nationals and nine tourists from Hong Kong.[32]
To make up for shortfalls of income, many cultivate their own food. Goat's cheese, pigeons, subsidized and home-baked bread and homegrown tomatoes are commonplace among the majority of its residents.
A controversial tourism development plan aims to transform Luxor into the biggest vast open-air museum. The master plan envisions new roads, five-star hotels, glitzy shops, and an IMAX theatre. The main attraction is an 11 million dollar project to unearth and restore the 2.7 kilometres (1.7 miles) long Avenue of Sphinxes that once linked Luxor and Karnak temples. The ancient processional road was built by the pharaohAmenhotep III and took its final form underNectanebo I in 400 BCE. Over a thousand sphinx statues lined the road now being excavated which was covered by silt, homes, mosques and churches. Excavation started around 2004.[33][34]
Street market
On18 April 2019, theEgyptian Government announced the discovery of a previously unopened coffin in Luxor, dated back to 18th dynasty ofUpper andLower Egypt.[35][36] According to the Minister of AntiquitiesKhaled al-Anani, it is the biggest rock-cut tomb to be unearthed in the ancient city ofThebes.[37] It is one of the largest, well-preserved tombs ever found near the ancient city of Luxor.[38] On 24 November 2018, this discovery was preceded by the finding of a well-preserved mummy of a woman inside a previously unopened coffin dating back more than 3,000 years.[39][40]
A bridge was opened in 1998, a few kilometres upstream of the main town of Luxor, allowing ready land access from the east bank to the west bank. Traditionally river crossings have been the domain of several ferry services. The so-called 'local ferry' (also known as the 'National Ferry') continues to operate from a landing opposite the Temple of Luxor.
Luxor railway station
Transport to sites on the west bank are serviced by taxi drivers who often approach ferry passengers.[citation needed] There are also local cars that reach some of the monuments for 2 L.E., although tourists rarely use them. Alternatively, motorboats line both banks of the Nile all day providing a quicker, but more expensive (50 L.E.), crossing to the other side.
The city of Luxor on the east bank has several bus routes used mainly by locals. Tourists often rely on horse carriages, called "calèches", for transport or tours around the city. Taxis are plentiful, and reasonably priced, and since the government has decreed that taxis older than 20 years will not be relicensed, there are many modern air-conditioned cabs. Recently, new roads have been built in the city to cope with the growth in traffic.
For domestic travel along the route of the Nile, a rail service operates several times a day. A morning train and sleeping train can be taken from the railway station situated around 400 metres (440 yd) from Luxor Temple. The line runs between several major destinations, includingCairo to the north andAswan to the south.
^Com, Voodooskies."Luxor, Egypt". Voodoo Skies.Archived from the original on June 19, 2015. RetrievedJune 21, 2013.
^"Luxor Climate Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe original on August 26, 2023. RetrievedAugust 27, 2023.
^"Luxor Climate Normals 1961–1990".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Reference Normals (1961–1990). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe original on August 27, 2023. RetrievedJanuary 25, 2015.
^"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005)... concerns over tourism's futureArchived 2013-09-24 at theWayback Machine accessed 27 September 2007
^(Times of India, Indore, MP, India edition Wed, February 27, 2013)
^"Baltimore Sister Cities".baltimoresistercities.org. Baltimore Sister Cities, Inc.Archived from the original on March 31, 2023. RetrievedOctober 21, 2020.
^"Cidades Irmãs".internacional.df.gov.br (in Portuguese). Escritório de Assuntos Internacionais, Governo do Distrito Federal.Archived from the original on December 16, 2021. RetrievedMay 22, 2020.
Bell, Lanny. “Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal ka.”Journal of Near Eastern Studies 44 (1985): 251–294.
Bongioanni, Alessandro.Luxor and the Valley of the Kings. Vercelli, Italy: White Star Publishers, 2004.
Brand, Peter J. “Veils, Votives and Marginalia: The Use of Sacred Space at Karnak and Luxor.” InSacred Space and Sacred Function in Ancient Thebes. Edited by Peter F. Dorman and Betsy N. Bryan, 51–83. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
El-Shahawy, Abeer, and Farid S. Atiya.Luxor Museum: The Glory of Ancient Thebes. Cairo, Egypt: Farid Atiya Press, 2005.
Haag, Michael.Luxor Illustrated: With Aswan, Abu Simbel, and the Nile. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2009.
Siliotti, Alberto.Luxor, Karnak, and the Theban Temples. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2002.
Strudwick, Nigel, and Helen Strudwick.Thebes In Egypt: A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.
Weeks, Kent R.The Illustrated Guide to Luxor: Tombs, Temples, and Museums. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, 2005.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
