Note: Although Luxembourg is located inWestern European Time/UTC (Z) zone, since 1 June 1904,LMT (UTC+0:24:36) was abandoned andCentral European Time/UTC+1 was adopted as standard time,[1] with a +0:35:24 offset (+1:35:24 duringDST) from Luxembourg City's LMT.
These figures are likely an underestimation, as dual citizens with Luxembourgish nationality are counted solely as Luxembourgers in official estimates.
The first traces of settlement in what is now Luxembourg are dated back to thePaleolithic Age, about 35,000 years ago. From the 6th century BC,Celtic tribes settled in the region between the riversRhine andMeuse.[26]
Six centuries later theRomans named the Celtic tribes inhabiting these exact regions collectively as theTreveri. Many examples of archaeological evidence proving their existence in Luxembourg have been discovered, the most famous being the Oppidum ofTitelberg.
In around 58 to 51 BC, the Romans invaded the country whenJulius Caesarconquered Gaul and part ofGermania up to the Rhine border, thus the area of what is now Luxembourg became part of theRoman Empire for the next 450 years, living in relative peace under thePax Romana.
The territory was infiltrated by theGermanicFranks from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406,[29]: 65 after which it became part of theKingdom of the Franks. The Salian Franks who settled in the area are often described as the ones having brought the Germanic language to present-day Luxembourg, since theold Frankish language spoken by them is considered by linguists to be a direct forerunner of theMoselle Franconian dialect, which later evolved into, among others, the modern-dayLuxembourgish language.[29]: 70 [30]
The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition ofLucilinburhuc[40] (todayLuxembourg Castle) situated on theBock rock bySiegfried, Count of the Ardennes, in 963 through an exchange act withSt. Maximin's Abbey, Trier.[41] Around thisfort, a town gradually developed, which became the center of a state of great strategic value within the Duchy of Lorraine.[20] Over the years, the fortress was extended by Siegfried's descendants and by 1083, one of them,Conrad I, was the first to call himself a "Count of Luxembourg", and with it effectively creating the independentCounty of Luxembourg (which was still a state within the Holy Roman Empire).[42]
By the middle of the 13th century, the counts of Luxembourg had managed to gain considerable wealth and power and had expanded their territory from the riverMeuse to theMoselle. By the time of the reign ofHenry V the Blonde,Bitburg,La Roche-en-Ardenne,Durbuy,Arlon,Thionville,Marville,Longwy, and in 1264 the competingCounty of Vianden (and with itSt Vith andSchleiden) had either been incorporated directly or becomevassal states to the County of Luxembourg.[43] The only major setback during their rise in power came in 1288, whenHenry VI and his three brothers died at theBattle of Worringen while trying unsuccessfully to add theDuchy of Limburg to their realm. But despite the defeat, the Battle of Worringen helped the Counts of Luxembourg to achieve military glory, which they had previously lacked, as they had mostly enlarged their territory by means of inheritances, marriages and fiefdoms.[44]
Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg City's fortifications
With the ascension of Henry VII as Emperor, the dynasty of theHouse of Luxembourg not only began to rule theHoly Roman Empire, but rapidly began to exercise growing influence over other parts of Central Europe as well.
Henry's son,John the Blind, in addition to being Count of Luxembourg, also becameKing of Bohemia. He remains a major figure in Luxembourgish history andfolklore and is considered by many historians the epitome ofchivalry in medieval times. He is also known for having founded theSchueberfouer in 1340 and for his heroic death at theBattle of Crécy in 1346.[46][47] John the Blind is considered anational hero in Luxembourg.[48]
In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three more members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors and Bohemian Kings: John's descendantsCharles IV,Sigismund (who also wasKing of Hungary and Croatia), andWenceslaus IV. Charles IV created the long-lastingGolden Bull of 1356, a decree which fixed important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Empire. Luxembourg remained an independent fief (county) of the Holy Roman Empire, and in 1354, Charles IV elevated it to the status of aduchy with his half-brotherWenceslaus I becoming the firstDuke of Luxembourg. While his kin were occupied ruling and expanding their power within the Holy Roman Empire and elsewhere, Wenceslaus, annexed theCounty of Chiny in 1364, and with it, the territories of the newDuchy of Luxembourg reached its greatest extent.[49]
During these 130 years, the House of Luxembourg was contending with theHouse of Habsburg for supremacy within the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe. It all came to end in 1443, when the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne. Since Sigismund andElizabeth of Görlitz were both heirless, all possessions of the Luxembourg Dynasty were redistributed among the European aristocracy.[50] The Duchy of Luxembourg become a possession ofPhilip the Good,Duke of Burgundy.[51]
As the House of Luxembourg had become extinct and Luxembourg now became part of theBurgundian Netherlands, this would mark the start of nearly 400 years of foreign rule over Luxembourg.
In 1482,Philip the Handsome inherited all of what became then known as theHabsburg Netherlands, and with it the Duchy of Luxembourg. For nearly 320 years Luxembourg would remain a possession of the mighty House of Habsburg, at first under Austrian rule (1506–1556), then underSpanish rule (1556–1714), before going back again toAustrian rule (1714–1794). With having become a Habsburg possession, the Duchy of Luxembourg became, like many countries in Europe at the time, heavily involved in the many conflicts for dominance of Europe between the Habsburg-held countries and theKingdom of France.
In context of theNine Years' War in 1684,France invaded Luxembourg again, conquering and occupying the Duchy until 1697 when it was returned to the Spanish to garner support for theBourbon cause during the prelude to theWar of the Spanish Succession. When the war broke out in 1701 Luxembourg and the Spanish Netherlands were administered by the pro-French faction under the governorMaximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria and sided with the Bourbons. The duchy was subsequently occupied by the pro-Austrian allied forces during the conflict and was awarded to Austria at its conclusion in 1714.[54]
As the Duchy of Luxembourg repeatedly passed back and forth from Spanish and Austrian to French rule, each of the conquering nations contributed to strengthening and expanding theFortress that the Castle of Luxembourg had become over the years. One example of this includes French military engineerMarquis de Vauban who advanced the fortifications around and on the heights of the city, fortification walls that are still visible today.[53]
During theWar of the First Coalition,Revolutionary France invaded the Austrian Netherlands, and with it, Luxembourg. In the years 1793 and 1794 most of the Duchy was conquered relatively quickly and theFrench Revolutionary Army committed many atrocities and pillages against the Luxembourgish civilian population and abbeys, the most infamous being the massacres ofDifferdange andDudelange, as well as the destruction of the abbeys ofClairefontaine,Echternach andOrval.[55][56] However the Fortress of Luxembourgresisted for nearly 7 months before the Austrian forces holding it surrendered. Luxembourg's long defence ledLazare Carnot to call Luxembourg "the best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar", giving rise to the city's nicknamethe Gibraltar of the North.[57]
Luxembourg was annexed by France, becoming thedépartement des forêts (department of forests), and the incorporation of the former Duchy as adépartement into France was formalized at theTreaty of Campo Formio in 1797.[57]From the start of the occupation the new French officials in Luxembourg, who spoke only French, implemented many republican reforms, among them the principle oflaicism, which led to an outcry in strongly Catholic Luxembourg. Additionally French was implemented as the only official language and Luxembourgish people were barred access to all civil services.[58] When the French Army introduced military duty for the local population, riots broke out which culminated in 1798 when Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion.[58] Even though the French managed to rapidly suppress this revolt calledKlëppelkrich, it had a profound effect on the historical memory of the country and its citizens.[59]
However, many republican ideas of this era continue to have a lasting effect on Luxembourg; one of the many examples features the implementation of the NapoleonicCode Civil which was introduced in 1804 and is still valid today.[60]
After thedefeat ofNapoleon in 1815, theCongress of Vienna decided to restore the Duchy of Luxembourg. However, as the territory had been part of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the Habsburgian Netherlands in the past, both theKingdom of Prussia and the newly formedUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included both the present Kingdom of the Netherlands and Belgium, now claimed possession of the territory. Thus the great powers decided that Luxembourg would become a member state of the newly formedGerman Confederation, but at the same time would be joined with the Netherlands inpersonal union underKing William I of the Netherlands, the son of the last Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, William V, Prince of Orange. To satisfy Prussia, it was decided that not only would theFortress of Luxembourg be manned byPrussian troops, but also that large parts of Luxembourgish territory (mainly the areas around Bitburg and St. Vith) would become Prussian possessions.[61] This marked the second time that the Duchy of Luxembourg was reduced in size and is generally known as theSecond Partition of Luxembourg. To compensate the Duchy for this loss, it was decided to elevate the Duchy to aGrand Duchy, thus giving the Dutch monarchs the additional title ofGrand Duke of Luxembourg. However, from 1816 to 1830,William I ignored the Duchy's sovereignty, treating Luxembourg as a conquered nation while subjecting Luxembourg to high taxes.[62]
After Belgium became an independent country following the victoriousBelgian Revolution of 1830–1831, it claimed the entire Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg as being part of Belgium. However, neither the Dutch King, who was also Grand Duke of Luxembourg, nor Prussia wanted to lose their grip on the mighty fortress of Luxembourg and therefor did not agree with the Belgian claims.[63] The dispute would be resolved at the1839 Treaty of London, where theThird Partition of Luxembourg was decided. This time the territory was reduced by more than half, as the predominantlyfrancophonewestern part of the country (but also the then Luxembourgish-speaking part ofArelerland) was transferred to the new Kingdom of Belgium underLeopold I of Belgium, thereby giving Luxembourg its modern-day borders. The treaty of 1839 also established full independence of the remaining Germanic-speaking Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg.[64][65][66]
After theLuxembourg Crisis of 1866 nearly led to war between Prussia and France, as both were unwilling to see the other taking influence over Luxembourg and its mighty fortress, the Grand Duchy's independence and neutrality were reaffirmed by theSecond Treaty of London and Prussia was finally willing to withdraw its troops from the Fortress of Luxembourg under the condition that the fortifications would be dismantled. That happened the same year.[69] At the time of theFranco-Prussian war in 1870, Luxembourg's neutrality was respected, and neither France nor Germany invaded the country.[70]
As a result of the recurring disputes between the major European powers, the people of Luxembourg gradually developed a consciousness of independence and a national awakening took place in the 19th century.[71] The people of Luxembourg began referring to themselves asLuxembourgers, rather than being part of one of the larger surrounding nations. This consciousness ofMir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sinn ("We want to remain what we are ") culminated in 1890, when the last step towards full independence was finally taken: due to a succession crisis theDutch monarchy ceased to hold the title Grand-Duke of Luxembourg. Beginning withAdolph of Nassau-Weilburg, the Grand-Duchy would haveits own monarchy, thus reaffirming its full independence.[72]
German occupations and interwar political crisis (1890–1945)
In August 1914, duringWorld War I,Imperial Germany violated Luxembourg'sneutrality by invading it to defeat France.[73] Nevertheless, despite theGerman occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence and political mechanisms.[74] Unaware of the fact that Germany secretly planned to annex the Grand-Duchy in case of a German victory (theSeptemberprogramm), the Luxembourgish government continued to pursue a policy of strict neutrality. However, the Luxembourgish population did not believe Germany had good intentions, fearing that it would annex Luxembourg. Around 1,000 Luxembourgers served in the French army;[75] their sacrifices have been commemorated at theGëlle Fra.[76]
After the war, Grand-DuchessMarie-Adélaïde was seen by many people (including the French and Belgian governments) as having collaborated with the Germans and calls for her abdication and the establishment of a Republic became louder.[77][78] After the retreat of theGerman army, communists in Luxembourg City andEsch-sur-Alzette tried to establish asoviet worker's republic similar to theones emerging in Germany, but these attempts lasted only 2 days.[78][77]In November 1918, a motion in theChamber of Deputies demanding theabolition of the monarchy was defeated narrowly by 21 votes to 19 (with three abstentions).[79]
France questioned the Luxembourgish government's, and especially Marie-Adélaïde's, neutrality during the war, and calls for an annexation of Luxembourg to either France or Belgium grew louder in both countries.[80] In January 1919, a company of theLuxembourgish Army rebelled, declaring itself to be the army of the new republic, but French troops intervened and put an end to the rebellion.[80] Nonetheless, the disloyalty shown by her own armed forces was too much for Marie-Adélaïde, who abdicated in favour of her sisterCharlotte 5 days later.[81] The same year, in apopular referendum, 77.8% of the Luxembourgish population declared in favour of maintaining monarchy and rejected the establishment of a republic. During this time, Belgium pushed for an annexation of Luxembourg. However, all such claims were ultimately dismissed at theParis Peace Conference, thus securing Luxembourg's independence.[82]
With 2.45% of its prewar population killed, and a third of all buildings in Luxembourg being destroyed or heavily damaged (mainly due to theBattle of the Bulge), Luxembourg suffered the highest such loss in Western Europe, but its commitment to the Allied war effort was never questioned.[86] Around 1,000–2,500 of Luxembourg's Jews were murdered inthe Holocaust.
Integration into NATO and European Union (1945–)
The Grand Duchy became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourg's neutral status under theconstitution formally ended in 1948, and in April 1949 it also became a founding member ofNATO.[87] During theCold War, Luxembourg continued its involvements on the side of theWestern Bloc. In the early fifties a small contingent of troops fought in theKorean War.[88]Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to supportISAF.[89]
Thesteel industry exploiting theRed Lands' rich iron-ore grounds in the beginning of the 20th century drove Luxembourg's industrialization.[90] After the decline of the steel industry in the 1970s, the country focused on establishing itself asa global financial center and developed into the banking hub it is reputed to be. Since the beginning of the 21st century, its governments have focused on developing the country into aknowledge economy, with the founding of theUniversity of Luxembourg and anational space program. In 2020, Luxembourg became the first country in the world to providefree public transport at a national scale.
On 19 December 2023, Luxembourg'sChamber of Deputies adopted a law to modernize the current investment tax credit.[91][92] It took effect less than two weeks later on 1 January 2024.[93]
The Hall of the Chamber of Deputies, the meeting place of the Luxembourgish national legislature, theChamber of Deputies, inLuxembourg City
Luxembourg is described as a "full democracy",[94] with aparliamentary democracy headed by aconstitutional monarch. Executive power is exercised by thegrand duke and the cabinet, which consists of several members with the titles of minister, minister delegate or secretary of state, who are headed by a Prime Minister.[95] The currentConstitution of Luxembourg, the supreme law of Luxembourg, was originally adopted on 17 October 1868.[96] The Constitution was last updated on 1 July 2023.[97]
The grand duke has the power to dissolve thelegislature, in which case new elections must be held within three months. But since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the nation, exercised by the grand duke in accordance with the Constitution and the law.[98]
Legislative power is vested in theChamber of Deputies, aunicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from fourconstituencies. A second body, theCouncil of State (Conseil d'État), composed of 21 ordinary citizens appointed by the grand duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.[99]
Luxembourg has three lower tribunals (justices de paix; inEsch-sur-Alzette, the city ofLuxembourg, andDiekirch), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch), and aSuperior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital.
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Luxembourg performs in the high range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in elected government, freedom of religion, and freedom of movement.[100][101][102]
There have been threepartitions of Luxembourg between 1659 and 1839. Together, they reduced the territory of Luxembourg from 10,700 km2 (4,100 sq mi) to the present-day area of 2,586 km2 (998 sq mi). The remainder forms parts of modern-day Belgium, France, and Germany.
Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political andeconomic integration. In 1921, Luxembourg and Belgium formed theBelgium–Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) to create a regime of inter-exchangeable currency and a commoncustoms.[68] Luxembourg is a member of theBenelux Economic Union and was one of the founding members of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in theSchengen Group (named afterthe Luxembourg village of Schengen where the agreements were signed).[23] At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued a pro-NATO, pro-US foreign policy.[105]
Luxembourgish soldiers on parade during National Day,Grand Duke Day, 23 June
The Luxembourgish army is mostly based in its casern, theCentre militaire Caserne Grand-Duc Jean on theHärebierg in Diekirch. The general staff is based in the capital, theÉtat-Major.[108] The army is undercivilian control, with the grand duke asCommander-in-Chief. TheMinister for Defense,Yuriko Backes, oversees army operations. The professional head of the army is theChief of Defense, who answers to the minister and holds the rank of general.
Being landlocked, Luxembourg has no navy. Seventeen NATOAWACS aeroplanes are registered as aircraft of Luxembourg.[109] In accordance with a joint agreement with Belgium, both countries have put forth funding for oneA400M military cargo plane.[110]
Luxembourg has participated in theEurocorps, has contributed troops to theUNPROFOR andIFOR missions in formerYugoslavia, and has participated with a small contingent in theNATOSFOR mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to supportISAF. The army has also participated in humanitarian relief missions such as setting up refugee camps forKurds and providing emergency supplies to Albania.[111]
Luxembourg is one of Europe's smallest countries, ranking168th in size of the194 independent countries of the world; it is about 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi) in size, measuring 82 km (51 mi) long and 57 km (35 mi) wide. It lies between latitudes49° and51° N, and longitudes5° and7° E.[112]
The northern third of the country is known as theÉislek orOesling, and forms part of theArdennes. It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including theKneiff nearWilwerdange,[113] which is the highest point, at 560 metres (1,840 ft). Other mountains are theBuurgplaatz at 559 metres (1,834 ft) nearHuldange and theNapoléonsgaard at 554 metres (1,818 ft) nearRambrouch. The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than five thousand people.
The southern two-thirds of the country is called theGuttland, and is more densely populated than the Éislek. It is also more diverse and can be divided into five geographic sub-regions. TheLuxembourg plateau, in south-central Luxembourg, is a large, flat,sandstone formation, and the site of the city of Luxembourg.Little Switzerland, in the east of Luxembourg, has craggy terrain and thick forests. TheMoselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the southeastern border. TheRed Lands, in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns.
The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: theMoselle, theSauer, and theOur. Other major rivers are theAlzette, theAttert, theClerve, and theWiltz. Thevalleys of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Guttland and the Éislek.
Environment
According to the 2012Environmental Performance Index, Luxembourg is one of the world's best performers in environmental protection, ranking fourth out of 132 assessed countries.[114] In 2020, it ranked second out of 180 countries.[115] Luxembourg also ranks sixth among the top ten most liveable cities in the world by Mercer's.[116] The country wants to cutGHG emissions by 55% in 10 years and reach zero emissions by 2050. Luxembourg wants to increase its organic farming fivefold.[117] It had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.12/10, ranking it 164th globally out of 172 countries.[118]
Luxembourg has anoceanic climate (Köppen:Cfb), marked by high levels of precipitation, particularly in late summer. The summers are warm and winters cool.[120]
Luxembourg is part of theSchengen Area, the EU single market, and theeurozone (dark blue).
Luxembourg's stable and high-incomemarket economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and a high level of innovation.[121] Unemployment is traditionally low, though it reached 6.1% by May 2012 after theGreat Recession.[122] In 2011, according to theIMF, Luxembourg was the world's second-richest country, with a per capita GDP on a purchasing-power parity (PPP) basis of $80,119;[123] by 2023 it was ranked first.[124] Its GDP per capita in purchasing power standards was 261% of the EU average (100%) in 2019.[125] Luxembourg ranks 13th inThe Heritage Foundation'sIndex of Economic Freedom,[126] 26th in the United Nations'Human Development Index, and fourth in the Economist Intelligence Unit'squality of life index.[127] It ranked 23rd in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025.[128][129]
The industrial sector, dominated by steel until the 1960s, has since diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. During recent decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline insteel production. Services, especially banking andfinance, account for the majority of the economic output. Luxembourg is the world's second-largest investment fund center (after the United States), the most important private banking center in theeurozone and Europe's leading center for reinsurance companies. Moreover, Luxembourg's government has aimed to attract Internet startups, withSkype andAmazon being two of the many Internet companies that have shifted their regional headquarters to Luxembourg. Other high-tech companies have established themselves in Luxembourg, including3d scanner developer/manufacturerArtec 3D.[citation needed]
Agriculture employed about 2.1% of Luxembourg's active population in 2010, when there were 2,200 agricultural holdings with an average area per holding of 60 hectares.[130]
Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands (seeBenelux), and as a member of the EU it enjoys the advantages of the open Europeanmarket.[131]
With $171 billion in May 2015, the country ranked 11th in the world in holdings ofU.S. Treasury securities.[132] However, securities owned by non-Luxembourg residents, but held in custodial accounts in Luxembourg, are included in this figure.[133]
As of 2019[update], Luxembourg's public debt totalled $15,687,000,000, or $25,554 per capita. The debt to GDP was 22.10%.[134]
The Luxembourg labour market represents 445,000 jobs occupied by 120,000 Luxembourgers, 120,000 foreign residents and 205,000 cross-border commuters. The latter pay their taxes in Luxembourg, but their education is partially financed by their country of residence. Luxembourg's government has never shared its tax revenues with the local authorities on theFrench border. This system is seen by some as one of the keys to Luxembourg's economic growth, but at the expense of the border countries.[135]
Luxembourg as a tax haven
In April 2009, concern about Luxembourg's banking secrecy laws, as well as its reputation as atax haven, led to its being added to a "gray list" of nations with questionable banking arrangements by theG20. In response, the country soon adopted OECD standards on exchange of information and was subsequently added into the category of "jurisdictions that have substantially implemented the internationally agreed tax standard".[136][137] In March 2010, theSunday Telegraph reported that most ofKim Jong Il's $4 billion in secret accounts was in Luxembourg banks.[138] Amazon.co.uk also benefits from Luxembourg tax loopholes by channelling substantial UK revenues, as reported byThe Guardian in April 2012.[139] Luxembourg ranked third on theTax Justice Network's 2011Financial Secrecy Index of the world's major tax havens, scoring only slightly behind theCayman Islands.[140] In 2013, Luxembourg was ranked the second safest tax haven in the world, behind Switzerland.
In early November 2014, just days after becoming head of theEuropean Commission, Luxembourg's former Prime MinisterJean-Claude Juncker was hit by media disclosures—derived from a document leak known asLuxLeaks—that Luxembourg had turned into a major European center of corporatetax avoidance under his premiership.[141]
Luxembourg's international airlineLuxair is based atLuxembourg Airport, the country's only international airport.
Luxembourg has road, rail and air transport facilities and services. The road network has been significantly modernized in recent years with 165 km (103 mi)[142] of motorways connecting the capital to adjacent countries. The advent of the high-speedTGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the city'srailway station and a new passenger terminal atLuxembourg Airport was opened in 2008.[143] Luxembourg City reintroducedtrams in December 2017 and there are plans to openlight-rail lines to connect Luxembourg City withEsch-sur-Alzette by 2030.[144][145]
There are 681 cars per 1000 persons in Luxembourg—higher than in most otherstates, though surpassed by the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, and other small states like the Principality of Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, theBritish overseas territory of Gibraltar, and Brunei.[146]
On 29 February 2020, Luxembourg became the first country to introduceno-charge public transportation, which is almost completely funded by public taxation.[147] Ridership of buses, trains and trams has grown consistently since, though operating costs had nearly doubled by 2025.[148]
Thetelecommunications industry in Luxembourg is liberalized and the electronic communications networks are significantly developed. Competition between the different operators is guaranteed by the legislative framework Paquet Telecom[149] of the Government of 2011 which transposes the European Telecom Directives into Luxembourgish law. This encourages the investment in networks and services. The regulator ILR – Institut Luxembourgeois de Régulation[150] ensures the compliance to these legal rules.[citation needed]
Luxembourg has modern and widely deployed optical fibre and cable networks throughout the country. In 2010, the Luxembourg Government launched its National strategy for very high-speed networks with the aim to become a global leader in terms of very high-speed broadband by achieving full 1 Gbit/s coverage of the country by 2020.[151] In 2011, Luxembourg had anNGA coverage of 75%.[152] In April 2013, Luxembourg featured the sixth highest download speed worldwide and the second highest in Europe: 32,46 Mbit/s.[153] The country's location in Central Europe, stable economy and low taxes favour the telecommunication industry.[154][155][156]
It ranks second in the world in the development of the Information and Communication Technologies in the ITU ICT Development Index and 8th in the Global Broadband Quality Study 2009 by theUniversity of Oxford and theUniversity of Oviedo.[157][158][159][160]
Luxembourg is connected to all major European Internet Exchanges (AMS-IX Amsterdam,[161] DE-CIX Frankfurt,[162] LINX London),[163] datacenters and POPs through redundant optical networks.[164][165][166][167][168] In addition, the country is connected to the virtual meetme room services (vmmr)[169] of the international data hub operator Ancotel.[170] This enables Luxembourg to interconnect with all major telecommunication operators[171] and data carriers worldwide. The interconnection points are in Frankfurt, London, New York and Hong Kong.[172] Luxembourg has established itself as one of the leadingfinancial technology (FinTech) hubs in Europe, with the Luxembourg government supporting initiatives like the Luxembourg House of Financial Technology.[173]
Some 20 data centers[174][175][176] are operating in Luxembourg. Six data centers are Tier IV Design certified: three of ebrc,[177] two of LuxConnect[178][179] and one of European Data Hub.[180] In a survey on nine international data centers carried out in December 2012 and January 2013 and measuring availability (up-time) and performance (delay by which the data from the requested website was received), the top three positions were held by Luxembourg data centers.[181][182]
Luxembourg has a high demand for transportation fuels andfossil fuels. But despite that, Luxembourg's climate law sets a goal that by 2030 it would have reduced emission down to 55%. As well as getting 49% of all cars to beelectric by 2030. Luxembourg has adopted some measures to reach that goal. Including acarbon tax that encourage renewable generations. Several groups also support energy efficiency.[183]
According to data from theWorld Health Organization, healthcare spending on behalf of the government of Luxembourg topped $4.1 Billion, amounting to about $8,182 for each citizen in the nation.[184][185] Luxembourg allows residents to choose their own doctor. While also having public healthcare cover 80% to 90% of all healthcare costs. The nation of Luxembourg collectively spent nearly 7% of itsGross domestic product on health, placing it among the highest spending countries onhealth services and related programs in 2010,[186] and 6th place in highest health index of countries in Europe in 2023.[187]
The people of Luxembourg are calledLuxembourgers.[190] The immigrant population increased in the 20th century due to the arrival of immigrants from Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, and Portugal; the last comprised the largest group. In 2013 about 88,000 Luxembourg inhabitants possessedPortuguese nationality.[191] In 2025, there were 681,973 permanent residents, 47% of which were of foreign nationals; the largest foreign national groups were the Portuguese, comprising 13.2% of the total population, followed by the French (7.2%), Italians (3.7%), Belgians (2.7%) and Germans (1.8%). Another 7.2% were of another EU nationality, 3.5% were non-EU European, and 7.2% were from outside Europe.[189]
Since the beginning of theYugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from the EU states, as well as Eastern Europe. In 2000 there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population. There were an estimated 5,000 illegal immigrants in Luxembourg in 1999.[192]
Luxembourg does not have any "official" languages per se. As determined by the 1984 Language Regimen Act (French:Loi sur le régime des langues),Luxembourgish is the solenational language of the Luxembourgish people.[13] It is considered the mother tongue or "language of the heart" for Luxembourgers and the language they generally use to speak or write to each other. Luxembourgish as well as the dialects in adjacent Germany belong to theMoselle Franconian subgroup of the mainWest Central German dialect group, which are largely mutually intelligible across the border, but Luxembourgish also has more than 5,000 words of French origin.[193][194] Knowledge of Luxembourgish is a criterion fornaturalization.[195]
In addition to Luxembourgish, French and German are used in administrative and judicial matters, making all threeadministrative languages of Luxembourg.[13] Per article 4 of the law promulgated in 1984, if a citizen asks a question in Luxembourgish, German or French, the administration must reply, as far as possible, in the language in which the question was asked.[13]
Advertisement from a bank in Luxembourg with translations in (clockwise from top left) Luxembourgish, German, English, French, and Portuguese
Luxembourg is largely multilingual. According to 2021 census data, 48.9% of citizens claimed Luxembourgish as their main language, 15.4% Portuguese, 14.9% French, 3.6% English, 3.6% Italian, 2.9% German and 10.8% different languages (the most spoken ones being Spanish, Arabic, Dutch, Russian, Polish and Romanian).[196]
Though not the most common mother tongue in Luxembourg, French is the most widely-known language in the country: in 2018, 98% of citizens were able to speak it.[197] The vast majority of Luxembourg residents are able to speak it as a second or third language.[198] As of 2018[update], much of the population was able to speak multiple other languages: 80% of citizens reported being able to hold a conversation in English, 78% in German and 77% in Luxembourgish, claiming these languages as their respective second, third or fourth language.[197]
Each of the three official languages is used as a primary language in certain spheres of everyday life, without being exclusive. Luxembourgish is the language that Luxembourgers generally use to speak and write to each other, and there has been a recent[when?] increase in the production of novels and movies in the language.[citation needed] At the same time, the numerous expatriate workers (approximately 44% of the population) generally do not use it to speak to each other.[199]
Most official business and written communication is carried out in French, which is also the language mostly used for public communication, with written official statements, advertising displays and road signs generally in French. Due to the historical influence of the Napoleonic Code on the legal system of the Grand Duchy, French is also the sole language of the legislation and generally the preferred language of the government, administration and justice. Parliamentary debates are mostly conducted in Luxembourgish, whereas written government communications and official documents (e.g. administrative or judicial decisions, passports, etc.) are drafted mostly in French and sometimes additionally in German.[citation needed]
Although professional life is largely multilingual, French is described by private sector business leaders as the main working language of their companies (56%), followed by Luxembourgish (20%), English (18%), and German (6%).[200]
German is very often used in much of the media along with French and is considered by most Luxembourgers their second language. This is mostly due to the high similarity of German to Luxembourgish but also because it is the first language taught to children in primary school (language of literacy acquisition).[201]
Due to the largecommunity of Portuguese origin, the Portuguese language is fairly prevalent in Luxembourg, though it remains limited to the relationships inside this community. Portuguese has no official status, but the administration sometimes makes certain informative documents available in Portuguese.[202][203]
Even though Luxembourg is largely multilingual today, some people claim that Luxembourg is subject of intensefrancization and that Luxembourgish and German are in danger of disappearing in the country. This would make Luxembourg either a unilingual Francophone country, or at best a bilingual French- and English-speaking country sometime in the far future.[204][205][198]
Since 1980, it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices.[207] According to a 2021Eurobarometer survey, 53% are Christian (46% Catholic, 2% protestant, 2% Orthodox, 3% other christians), 1% Muslim, 38% unaffiliated (25% not religious or agnostic and 13% atheist) and 7% follow other religions.[2]
According to a 2005Eurobarometer poll,[208] 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 28% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force", and 22% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".
Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German; while in secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.[209] Proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school. In addition to the three national languages, English is taught in compulsory schooling and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak English. The past two decades have highlighted the growing importance of English in several sectors, in particular the financial sector. Portuguese, the language of the largest immigrant community, is also spoken by large segments of the population, but by relatively few from outside the Portuguese-speaking community.[210]
According to data from theWorld Health Organization, healthcare spending on behalf of the government of Luxembourg topped $4.1 Billion, amounting to about $8,182 for each citizen in the nation.[184][185] Luxembourg allows residents to choose their own doctor while also having public healthcare cover 80% to 90% of all healthcare costs. The nation of Luxembourg collectively spent nearly 7% of itsGross domestic product on health, placing it among the highest spending countries onhealth services and related programs in 2010,[186] and 6th place in highest health index of countries in Europe in 2023.[187]
Luxembourg was a founding participant of theEurovision Song Contest, and participated every year between1956 and before it was relegated after the1993 competition, with the exception of 1959. Although Luxembourg was free to participate again in1995, it chose not to return to the competition before2024. It has won the competition a total of five times,1961,1965,1972,1973 and1983 and hosted the contest in1962,1966,1973, and1984. Only nine of its 38 entries before 2024, and none of its five winning entries, were performed byLuxembourgish artists.[216] On its2024 return, this was, however, with a particular emphasis on promoting music and artists from Luxembourg.[217]
Luxembourg was the first city to be namedEuropean Capital of Culture twice. The first time was in 1995. In 2007, the European Capital of Culture was to be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and theLorraine area in France.[218] The event was an attempt to promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders physically, psychologically, artistically and emotionally.[citation needed]
Luxembourg was represented at the WorldExpo 2010 in Shanghai, China, from 1 May to 31 October 2010 with its own pavilion.[219][220] The pavilion, designed as a forest and fortress, was based on the transliteration of the word Luxembourg into Chinese, "Lúsēnbǎo", which when directly translated, means "forest and fortress". It represented Luxembourg as the "Green Heart in Europe".[221]
Charly Gaul won threeGrand Tours in his cycling career.
Unlike most countries in Europe, sports in Luxembourg are not concentrated upon a particularnational sport, but instead encompass a number of sports, both team and individual. Despite the lack of a central sporting focus, over 100,000 people in Luxembourg, out of a total population of 660,000, are licensed members of one sports federation or another.[222] TheStade de Luxembourg, situated inGasperich, southernLuxembourg City, is the country'snational stadium and largest sports venue in the country with a capacity of 9,386 for sporting events, including football and rugby union, and 15,000 for concerts.[223] The largestindoor venue in the country isd'Coque,Kirchberg, north-easternLuxembourg City, which has a capacity of 8,300. The arena is used for basketball,handball, gymnastics, and volleyball, including the final of the2007 Women's European Volleyball Championship.[224]Hess Cycling Team is a Luxembourgish women's road cycling team.[225]
Luxembourg cuisine reflects its position on the border between the Latin and Germanic worlds, being heavily influenced by the cuisines of neighbouring France and Germany. More recently,[when?] it has been enriched by its many Italian and Portuguese immigrants.[226]
Most native Luxembourg dishes, consumed as the traditional daily fare, share roots in the country's folk dishes, the same as in neighbouringGermany.[227]
Luxembourg sells the most alcohol in Europe per capita.[228] However, the large proportion of alcohol purchased by customers from neighbouring countries contributes to the statistically high level of alcohol sales per capita; this level of alcohol sales is thus not representative of the actual alcohol consumption of the Luxembourg population.[229]
Luxembourg has the second highest number ofMichelin-starred restaurants per capita with Japan ranked at number one and Switzerland following Luxembourg at number three.[230]
Media
The main languages of media in Luxembourg are French and German. The newspaper with the largest circulation is the German-language dailyLuxemburger Wort.[231] Because of the strong multilingualism in Luxembourg, newspapers often alternate articles in French and articles in German, without translation. In addition, there are both English and Portuguese radio and national print publications, but accurate audience figures are difficult to gauge since the national media survey by ILRES is conducted in French.[232]
Luxembourg is known in Europe for its radio and television stations (Radio Luxembourg andRTL Group). It is also the uplink home ofSES, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain.[233]
Due to a 1988 law that established a special tax scheme for audiovisual investment, the film and co-production in Luxembourg has grown steadily.[234] There are some 30 registered production companies in Luxembourg.[235][236]
^"Évolution de la population".Statistiques – Luxembourg (in French). 10 February 2023.Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved18 April 2023.
^Constitution du Grand Duché de Luxembourg (in French, Luxembourgish, and German). Brochure distribuée par la chambre des députés (48 pages). 2023. p. 4 : Chapter I, Section 1, article 4. "La langue du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg est le luxembourgeois. La loi règle l'emploi des langues luxembourgeoise, francaise et allemande.".
^"Mountains in Luxembourg"(PDF). Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved24 February 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), recueil de statistiques par commune. statistiques.public.lu (2003) p. 20
^Les langues dans les offres d'emploi au Luxembourg (1984–2014), Université du Luxembourg, IPSE Identités, Politiques, Sociétés, Espaces, Working Paper, Juin 2015
^"À propos des langues"(PDF) (in French). Service Information et Presse. pp. 3–4. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 27 September 2013. Retrieved1 August 2006.
![Location of Luxembourg (green circle) – in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in the European Union (light green) – [Legend]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEU-Luxembourg.svg)
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