Manned-Unmanned Teaming (MUM-T) refers to the collaborative operation of manned and unmanned systems, typically in military or aerospace contexts, to enhance mission effectiveness. It enables human operators to control, coordinate, or supervise autonomous or semi-autonomous platforms, such as drones or robotic systems, to improve situational awareness, reduce risk, and optimize performance in complex environments.
Aloyal wingman is a proposed type ofunmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) which incorporatesartificial intelligence (AI) and is capable of collaborating with the next generation of crewed combat aircraft, includingsixth-generation fighters and bombers such as theNorthrop Grumman B-21 Raider. Also unlike the conventional UCAV, the loyal wingman is expected to be capable of surviving on the battlefield but to be significantly lower-cost than a crewed aircraft with similar capabilities. In the US, the concept is known as thecollaborative combat aircraft (CCA).[1] CCAs are intended to operate in collaborative teams with the next generation of manned combat aircraft, includingsixth-generation fighters and bombers such as theNorthrop Grumman B-21 Raider.[2] Unlike the conventional UCAVs, the CCA incorporatesartificial intelligence (AI),[a] denoted an "autonomy package", increasing its survivability on the battlefield. It is still expected to cost much less than a manned aircraft with similar capabilities.[4] The US Air Force plans to spend more than $8.9 billion on its CCA programs from fiscal years 2025 to 2029, with an additional $661 million planned for fiscal year 2024.[5] The success of the CCA program may lessen the need for additional manned squadrons.[6][7]
The loyal wingman is a military drone with an onboard AI control system and capability to carry and deliver a significant military weapons load. The AI system is envisaged as being significantly lighter and lower-cost than a human pilot with their associated life support systems, but to offer comparable capability in flying the aircraft and in mission execution.[8]
Some concepts are based on a standardised aircraft deployed in two variants; one as asixth-generation fighter with a human pilot and/or battle commander in the cockpit, and the other as a loyal wingman with an AI system substituted in the same location. BAE Systems envisage theTempest to be capable of operating in either configuration.[9]
Another concept is to develop a shorter-range, and hence smaller and cheaper, wingman to be carried by the manned parent aircraft and air-launched when needed. The drone in turn carries its own munitions. This reduces the overall cost while maintaining protection for the crewed aircraft on the battlefield.A CCA is a military drone with an onboard AI control system and capability to carry and deliver a significant military weapons load. Its AI system is envisaged as being significantly lighter and lower-cost than a human pilot with their associated life support systems, but offering comparable capability in flying the aircraft and in mission execution.
The principal application is to elevate the role of human pilots tomission commanders, leaving AIs to operate under their tactical control as high-skill operators of relatively low-cost robotic craft.[10]
CCAs can perform other missions as well,[11] as "a sensor,[b] as a shooter, as a weapons carrier, as a cost reducer".[12][13]
The principal application is to elevate the role of human pilots tomission commanders, leaving AIs as "loyalwingmen" to operate under their tactical control as high-skill operators of relatively low-cost robotic craft.[10][14][15]
Loyal wingmen can perform other missions as well, as "a sensor, as a shooter, as a weapons carrier, as a cost reducer".[11][12]
A loyal wingman is expected to cost significantly less than a crewed fighter, and will typically be considered vulnerable to attrition.[16] It would have sufficient intelligence and onboard defence systems to survive on the battlefield. TheUnited States Secretary of the Air ForceFrank Kendall has described them as remotely controlled versions oftargeting pods,electronic warfare pods or weapons carriers to provide additional sensors and munitions; to balance affordability and capability.[17][18]
Although a CCA will be a fraction of the cost of a manned fighter, they would not be considered expendable or even vulnerable to attrition.[19] A CCA would have sufficient intelligence and onboard defense systems to survive on the battlefield. US Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall has described them as playing perhaps "100 roles":[20] remotely controlled versions oftargeting pods,electronic warfare pods or weapons carriers to provide additional sensors and munitions; to balance affordability and capability.[21][19]
The price point of a CCA will determine how many types of missions a single airframe can perform, with more expensive designs able to be multirole aircraft, while cheaper designs could be modular to perform different tasks on different days which can afford to be lost in combat.[2][13] Two increments are planned: increment 1 CCAs will have sensor and targeting systems to focus on carrying additional munitions for manned aircraft; increment 2 CCAs will have greater stealth and autonomy to perform missions including EW,SEAD, and potentially act as decoys. It's possible two distinct solutions could emerge from this stage, one high end and "exquisite" and the other more basic and inexpensive oriented around a single mission.[22][23] Service officials started out developing the increment 2 CCA as a high-end, stealthy platform, but wargames showing that large numbers of low-end aircraft would be more effective than small numbers of high-end versions in a simulated Pacific conflict influenced them to rethink their approach.[24]
The USAF is seeking CCAs with greater thrust than the currentMQ-28 and the XQ-58.[25][26]
The concept of the loyal wingman arose in the early 2000s and, since then, countries such as Australia, China, Japan, Russia, the UK and the US have been researching and developing the necessary design criteria and technologies.[8]
China has been studying the loyal wingman concept since at least 2019 and has shown off some concept airframes. However, although China already manufactures drones and has well-developed swarming technology, the planned level of autonomy or even AI for these systems are not known.[28][29]
Japan announced a development programme for a loyal wingman drone in 2021, issuing the first round of funding in 2022.[31][32] The drone is intended to be carried for deployment by a proposed F-X fighter, also under development.[33]
Russian projects for wingman-class drones are thought to include theSukhoi S-70 Okhotnik and theKronshtadt Grom. However, although Russia already manufactured drones, the planned level of autonomy or even AI for these systems are not known.[34][35]
In addition to the production of the new generation fighter,KF-21, South Korea plans to develop several types of UCAVs as wingmen to team up with the manned fighter.[36][37]
TAI Anka-3 is ajet-powered,flying wing typestealthUCAV.[38] Its maiden flight was successfully completed on 28 December 2023.[39][40] On October 30, 2024, a TAI Anka-3 UCAV armed with acruise missile became the first drone in history to be controlled by another aircraft in the loyal wingman role, representing an advancement in remote control capabilities for military aviation.[41]
TheRAF in the UK has been developing the Loyal Wingman concept since 2015, with theSpirit Mosquito technology demonstrator flying in 2020. Programme funding was cancelled in June 2022 because the Ministry of Defence felt that it was better spent on less ambitious advances.[42]
Defense policy expertHeather Penney has identified five key elements for the collaborative development of crewed-uncrewed teaming of autonomous loyal wingmen, remote pilots ofunmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and pilots flying separately in manned aircraft (also calledmanned-unmanned teaming).[63][64][65]
Create concepts that will maximize the strengths of both CCA and piloted aircraft working as a team.
Include operators in CCA development to ensure they understand how they will perform in the battlespace.
Warfighters must be able to depend on CCA autonomy.
Warfighters must have assured control over CCA in highly dynamic operations.
Human workloads must be manageable.
The Autonomous Core System,Skyborg's autonomy package, was shown to be portable across multiple airframes;[66][67] this has led Skyborg to become a Program of Record with aProgram Executive Officer (PEO) for acquisition.[66][68] Skyborg will continue to serve as a science and technology platform.[66]
Most UAVs are remotely piloted, but an AI program piloting a collaborative combat aircraft would need amission commander for crewed-uncrewed teaming. —Heather Penney.[64][65] In 2020, TheDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)AlphaDogfight test program established that AI programs that fly fighter aircraft willovermatch human pilots, to the extent that the AI agents even flew with fine motor control.[69][70] An autonomy package on the VISTA testbed has demonstrated dogfighting capability.[71]US Air Force SecretaryFrank Kendall flew in the X-62A VISTA, which was under AI control.[72] TheNGAD[73][74] is anticipated to use loyal wingmen (CCAs).[75][76][12] Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall envisions these uncrewed aircraft as performing parts of a larger mission;[43] CCA development can be conducted in parallel with NGAD development, which has to take into account a larger set of requirements.[12] Up to five autonomous CCAs would operate with an NGAD.[43]
Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) will test their Skyborg manned-unmanned programs such as Autonomous Air Combat Operations (AACO),[77] and DARPA will test its Air Combat Evolution (ACE)[11] artificial intelligence program.[78] The System for Autonomous Control of Simulation (SACS) software for human interface is being developed byCalspan.[78]
DARPA's Longshot is an air-launched UAV meant to extend the range of a mission[79] and reduce the risk to manned aircraft, which could then remain atstandoff range; if Longshot were to use Air Combat Evolution (ACE),[11] missiles launched from that Longshot could more effectively select targets.[80] On March 6, 2023, DARPA choseGeneral Atomics Aeronautical Systems (GA-ASI) to carry out the design of the air-launched Longshot drone through Critical Design Review (CDR); a LongShot would itself carry anAMRAAM orSidewinder missile, which greatly extends the range of these missiles.[81] In this way, aBoeing F-15EX Eagle II or similar 4th-generation fighter can greatly increase their survivability, when armed with a LongShot.[81] GA-ASI is developing a core package (Gambit) for the CCA market.[82]
On 9 December 2022, the Air Force Test Pilot School tested itsGeneral Dynamics X-62 VISTA, a modifiedF-16 Fighting Falcon which can fly autonomously, with 2 different AI packages.[77] By 16 December 2022 the VISTA had flown eight sorties using ACE, and six sorties using AACO, at a rate of two sorties per day.[77][83][84] Six F-16s fromEglin AFB will be fitted with autonomy agents, to establish the foundation of the Collaborative Combat Aircraft (CCA) program.[85][86][69] The CCA lines of effort as of March 2023[update] were:[86][87]
Developing the Collaborative combat aircraft platform itself,
developing the autonomy package that will fly a CCA, and
figuring out how to organize, train, equip, and supply the CCA program[87]
On 24 April 2024, the US Air Force announced that they had eliminated Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman from the Increment I competition and that the Anduril Fury and General Atomics Gambit would be moving forward with development. The Air Force expects to make a final decision between the two companies' offerings by 2026.[22][89] As the CCA program is expected to result in multiple types of aircraft with varying capabilities and costs, all companies are expected to bid again for follow-on Increments.[90]
On 19 September 2024, General Atomics displayed a full-scale model of a CCA.[91] One such CCA version is a 'missile truck',[91] which would augment the capabilities of a crewed/uncrewed mission. Anduril, a competing CCA vendor also displayed a full-scale model.
On the 3rd of March 2025, the Air Force released a statement designating the General Atomics design theYFQ-42A, and the Anduril design theYFQ-44A.[92]
A CCA is estimated to cost between one-half and one-quarter as much as $80 millionLockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II;[6] the desired cost is between $25-30 million per airframe.[24] US Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall is aiming for an initial fleet of 1,000 CCAs.[93] As elements of a crewed-uncrewed team, two CCAs could be teamed with an NGAD or F-35, say two for each of the 200 NGAD platforms,[94] and two for each of the 300 F-35s, in order to work out concepts to integrate them into the service,[87] but the full inventory could be twice that size.[95] As of 3 July 2024, the Air Force requested reprogramming an additional $150 million for CCA development in 2024.[96] This is a 40% increase over the $392 million budget previously requested; the FY2025 budget request will reflect an additional increment;[96][97] the money for NGAD was adjusted appropriately.[98]
The 26th Secretary of the US Air Force listed CCAs among his top seven priorities for thefiscal year (FY) 2024 budget request to its Chief of staff:[12] Collaborative combat aircraft are entering the FY2024 presidential budget request;[86] Collaborative Combat Aircraft (CCA) projects are estimated to be $500 million for perhaps "100 roles" in USAF missions in FY2024.[20] The US Air Force plans to spend more than $6 billion on its CCA programs over the next five years (2023 to 2028).[99]
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