"Love Story" is a song by the American singer-songwriterTaylor Swift. It was released as thelead single from her second studio album,Fearless, on September 15, 2008, byBig Machine Records. Inspired by a boy who was unpopular with her family and friends, Swift wrote the song usingWilliam Shakespeare's tragedyRomeo and Juliet as a reference point. The lyrics narrate a troubled romance that ends with a marriage proposal, contrary to Shakespeare's tragic conclusion. Produced by Swift andNathan Chapman, themidtempocountry pop song includes akey change after thebridge and uses acoustic instruments including banjo, fiddle, mandolin, and guitar.
At the time of the song's release, music critics praised the production but deemed the literary references ineffective. In retrospect, critics have considered it one of Swift's best singles. "Love Story" peaked atop the chart in Australia, where it wascertified fifteen-times platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and reached the top five on charts in Canada, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the single peaked at number four on theBillboard Hot 100 and was the first country song to reach number one onPop Songs. TheRecording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified iteight-times platinum. "Love Story" has sold over six million copies in the United States and 18 million copies worldwide.
Swift usedShakespeare'sRomeo and Juliet as a reference point for "Love Story"; the balcony scene (pictured) is referenced in the song's opening lines.[1]
Taylor Swift moved fromPennsylvania toNashville, Tennessee, in 2004 to pursue a career as acountry singer-songwriter,[2] and in 2006, she released her first albumTaylor Swift at 16 years old.[3] The album spent more weeks on the USBillboard 200 chart than any other album that was released in the 2000s decade.[4]Taylor Swift's third single "Our Song" made Swift the youngest person to single-handedly write and sing aHot Country Songs number-one single.[5] Her success was rare for a female teenage artist; the 2000s country-music market had been dominated by adult male musicians.[6][7]
While promoting her debut album on tour in 2007 and 2008, Swift wrote songs for her second studio albumFearless.[8] She developed "Love Story" late into the production ofFearless.[9] Answering fan questions onTime in April 2009, Swift said the song was inspired by a boy whom she never dated and was one of the most romantic pieces she had written.[10] Swift recalled the reactions she received after introducing him to her family and friends: "[They] all said they didn't like him. All of them!"[11][12] This made Swift relate to the narrative ofWilliam Shakespeare's 16th-century playRomeo and Juliet, which she described as a "situation where the only people who wanted them to be together were them".[11] Reflecting on the event, Swift thought, "This is difficult but it's real, it matters"; she developed the second refrain and later the whole song around that line.[13]
Although inspired byRomeo and Juliet, Swift felt the play could have been "the best love story ever told" had it not been for Shakespeare's tragic ending in which the two characters die.[14] She thus made the narrative of "Love Story" conclude with a marriage proposal, which she deemed a happy ending the characters deserved.[14][15] Swift wrote "Love Story" on her bedroom floor in approximately 20 minutes, feeling too inspired to put the song down unfinished.[11] According to Swift, the song represents her optimistic outlook on love, which is inspired by her childhood fascination with fairy tales.[15] Looking back on "Love Story" after she released her seventh studio albumLover (2019), which is about her first experience of "love that was very real", Swift said the track is "stuff I saw on a movie [and] stuff I read mixed in with some like crush stuff that had happened in my life".[16]
After finishing writing, Swift recorded a roughdemo of "Love Story" within 15 minutes the next day.[10] She recorded the song's album version in March 2008 with the producerNathan Chapman atBlackbird Studio in Nashville.[17] For her vocals, Chapman tried different microphones until Swift came across an Avantone CV-12 multi-pattern tube microphone that was built by the country-music artistRay Kennedy, with whom she worked onTaylor Swift. After growing fond of the Avantone CV-12 upon testing her vocals, Swift used it to record "Love Story" and other songs. She sang the song live backed by her band, who were playing acoustic guitar, bass guitar, and drums. Chapman played other instruments, including nine acoustic guitars, and heoverdubbed them on the track; he also recorded background vocals.[17] Theengineer Chad Carlson recorded the track usingPro Tools and Justin Niebankmixed it using a Solid State Logic 9080 K series console and Genelec 1032 studio monitors.[17] Drew Bollman and Richard Edgeler assisted in the mixing process.[18]
"Love Story", along with the rest ofFearless, wasmastered by Hank Williams at MasterMix Studios in Nashville.[18] The track uses country music instruments such as banjo and fiddle.Big Machine Records released it to UScountry radio asFearless's lead single on September 15, 2008.[17][19] Chapman mixed another version of "Love Story" for USpop radio; he edited Niebank's mix usingApple Logic, overlaid the original drums with an electronicdrum loop via Apple Logic's Ultrabeat, and replaced the banjo and fiddle with an additional set of electric guitars recorded through Amplitube Stomp I/O.[17]Rolling Stone's Keith Harris described the electric guitars as "suitably gargantuan" and louder than those on the country version.[20] Big Machine in partnership withRepublic Records released "Love Story" to US pop radio on October 14, 2008.[21] In the United Kingdom, "Love Story" was released on March 2, 2009, a week prior to the release of the international edition ofFearless. The international mix of the song, mixed by Jeremy Wheatley, features an arrangement more similar to the original country version; albeit with a milder set of electric guitars substituting the banjo and fiddle.Music Week reported that this version was "remixed for European ears".[22]
"Love Story" is amidtempocountry pop song[23][24] that is driven by acoustic instruments including banjo, fiddle, mandolin, and guitar.[25] Jon Bream from theStar Tribune described the single as "pure pop with a minimalist vibe" that suits both country and pop radio.[23] According toThe New York Times, despite the banjo and fiddle, the song could "easily be an emo rocker".[26] Swift's vocals have a slighttwang.[27] The mix and master, according toBillboard's Kristen He, are loud and "dynamically flat ... [and are] designed to burst out of FM radio speakers".[25]
The lyrics of "Love Story" narrate a troubled romance between two characters, drawing from the lead characters in Shakespeare'sRomeo and Juliet.[28] According to the psychologist Katie Barclay, the song explores feelings of love in the contexts of pain and joy.[29] "Love Story", save for the final refrain, is narrated from Juliet's perspective.[1][30] In theverses, Juliet tells the story of hers and Romeo's challenged courtship, of which her father disapproves.[31] The first verse introduces Juliet in a scene, "We were both young when I first saw you / I close my eyes and the flashback starts, I'm standing there / On a balcony in summer air", which references the balcony scene in Act II, scene ii of Shakespeare's play.[1] In the refrains, which alter slightly as the song progresses to accompany the narrative, Juliet pleads for her love interest to appear, "Romeo, take me somewhere we can be alone / I'll be waiting / All there's left to do is run."[29][30]
In the second verse, Juliet meets Romeo again in a garden and learns he must leave town because of her father's disapproval.[10] Their relationship encounters difficulties, "'Cause you were Romeo, I was a scarlet letter", referencingNathaniel Hawthorne'sThe Scarlet Letter (1850).[32] According to the media-and-film scholar Iris H. Tuan, Hawthrone's "scarlet letter" imagery represents the female protagonistHester Prynne's sin and adultery, whereas Swift's use symbolizes the forbidden love between Romeo and Juliet.[32] Juliet pleads, "This love is difficult, but it's real", which Swift said was her favorite lyric in the song.[33]
After thebridge, with accelerated drums and theharmonization of melody and vocals, the final refrain incorporates akey change up awhole step.[34] The final refrain is narrated from Romeo's perspective and tells of his marriage proposal to Juliet after he has sought her father's approval, "I talked to your dad, go pick out a white dress."[35] Whereas Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet are secretly married without their parents' approval and both commit suicide, the characters in "Love Story" depart from that ending.[36] According to Tuan, by projecting her feelings and fantasy on aRomeo and Juliet-inspired narrative, Swift created a song that strongly resonates with an audience of teenage girls and young women.[37] Deborah Evans Price ofBillboard agreed but also said "one doesn't have to be a lovestruck teen" to enjoy the song's emotional engagement.[38]
Blender included "Love Story" at number 73 on its 2008 year-end list,[39] andThe Village Voice'sPazz & Jop critics' poll placed it at number 48.[40] InFearless reviews, many critics complimented the production; Sean Daly from theSt. Petersburg Times,[41]Rob Sheffield fromBlender[42] andStephen Thomas Erlewine fromAllMusic selected the track as an album highlight.[43] Deborah Evans Price ofBillboard praised the "swirling, dreamy" production and said Swift's success in the country-music market "could only gain momentum".[38] Others includingThe Boston Globe's James Reed[30] andUSA Today's Elysa Gardner deemed "Love Story" an example of Swift's songwriting abilities at a young age; the latter appreciated the song for earnestly portraying teenage feelings "rather than [being] a mouthpiece for a bunch of older pros' collective notion of adolescent yearning".[44]
Some critics were more reserved in their praise and took issue with the literary references. In a four-stars-out-of-five rating of the song for theBBC, Fraser McAlpine deemed the Shakespearean reference not as sophisticated as its premise and the lyrics generic, but he praised the production and wrote, "It's great to see a big pop song being used as a method of direct story telling."[28] Themusicologist James E. Perone commented: "the melodic hooks are strong enough to overcome the predictability of the lyrics."[45] Jon Bream from theStar Tribune deemed the single inferior to Swift's debut country-music single "Tim McGraw" (2006) but commended the production as catchy.[23] In aSlant Magazine review, Jonathan Keefe was impressed by Swift's melodic songwriting for creating "massive pop hooks" but found the references toRomeo and Juliet "point-missing" andThe Scarlet Letter "inexplicable". Keefe deemed the lyrics lacking in creativity and disapproved of Swift's "clipped phrasing" in the refrain.[46]
In retrospective commentaries, the English-language professor Robert N. Watson and the music journalistAnnie Zaleski deemed "Love Story" a memorable song thanks to its Shakespearean narrative; the former regarded it as an evidence of Swift's status as "the twenty-first-century's most popular songwriter of failed love affairs"[47] and the latter wrote that the song deserves to be "a love story for the ages".[48] "Love Story" was included on best-of lists includingTaste of Country's "Top 100 Country Songs" (2016),[49]Time Out's "35 Best Country Songs of All Time" (2022),[50] andBillboard's "Top 50 Country Love Songs of All Time" (2022).[24]
Critics have rated "Love Story" high in rankings of Swift's songs; these include Hannah Mylrea fromNME (2020), who ranked it fifth out of 160 songs,[51] Jane Song fromPaste (2020), 13th out of 158,[52] and Nate Jones fromVulture (2024), 11th out of 245.[53] In another ranking of Swift's select 100 tracks forThe Independent, Roisin O'Connor placed "Love Story" at number 15 and said it showcases Swift as a songwriter who "understands the power of a forbidden romance".[54]Alexis Petridis fromThe Guardian placed it second, behind "Blank Space" (2014), on his 2019 ranking of Swift's 44 singles. He said of the literary allusions: "[If] the references to Shakespeare and Hawthorn [sic] seem clumsy, they are clumsy in a believably teenage way."[55]
In the United States, "Love Story" debuted at number 16 on theBillboard Hot 100 and at number 25 on the Hot Country Songs chart, both dated September 27, 2008.[56][57] The next week, it reached number five on the Hot 100.[58] The single peaked at number four on the Hot 100 chart dated January 17, 2009, and spent 49 weeks on the chart.[59] It spent two weeks atop the Hot Country Songs chart.[60] On thePop Songs chart, which tracks US pop radio, "Love Story" reached number one on the week ending February 28, 2009.[61] It became the first song to top both the country-radio and pop-radio charts and surpassed the number-three-peaking "You're Still the One" (1998) byShania Twain as the highest-charting countrycrossover to pop radio.[62]
On otherBillboard airplay charts, "Love Story" peaked at number one onAdult Contemporary and number three onAdult Pop Songs.[63][64] Together with "Teardrops on My Guitar" (2007), "Love Story" made Swift the first artist in the 2000s decade to have two titles each reach the top 10 of four airplay charts; Hot Country Songs, Pop Songs, Adult Pop Songs, and Adult Contemporary.[65] It topped the 2009 year-endRadio Songs chart.[66] By February 2009, it was the first country song to sell three million downloads.[67] In 2015, theRecording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified "Love Story" eight-times platinum.[68] The single had sold 6.2 million copies in the United States by October 2022 and became Swift's highest-selling single in the nation.[69]
"Love Story" was Swift's first international hit, peaking at number-one in Australia, becoming her first,[70] and where it was certified fifteen-times platinum.[71] It peaked within the top five of singles charts in Japan (three),[72] and the wider English-speaking world: the United Kingdom (two),[73] Ireland (three),[74] New Zealand (three),[75] Canada (four),[76] and Scotland (five).[77] In mainland Europe, the single peaked at number ten on theEuropean Hot 100 Singles chart,[78] number four in the Czech Republic,[79] number six in Hungary,[80] number seven in Norway,[81] and number ten in Sweden, top twenty in Denmark, France and the Netherlands and top forty in Belgium and Germany.[82] "Love Story" was certified four-times platinum in the United Kingdom and New Zealand,[83][84] double platinum in Canada,[85] platinum in Denmark and Germany,[86][87] and gold in Italy, France and Japan.[88] It sold 6.5 million digital copies worldwide and was the sixth-most-downloaded single of 2009.[89] By February 2021, estimated worldwide sales of "Love Story" stood at 18 million units.[90]
Trey Fanjoy, who had worked with Swift on previous music videos, directed "Love Story".[91] Swift was inspired by historical eras such as theMiddle Ages, theRenaissance, and theRegency to make a period-piece-styled video with a timeless narrative that "could happen in the 1700s, 1800s, or 2008".[91] She spent six months searching for the male lead and upon recommendation from an acquaintance choseJustin Gaston, a fashion model who was competing in the television seriesNashville Star.[92][93] After Gaston was eliminated from the show, Swift contacted him to appear in the video.[91] She believed Gaston was a perfect choice for the male lead: "I was so impressed by the way his [expressions] were in the video. Without even saying anything, he would just do a certain glance and it really came across well."[92]
The music video was filmed within two days in August 2008 in Tennessee. The crew considered traveling to Europe to find a castle for the video's setting but settled on Castle Gwynn inArrington; the castle was built in 1973 and is part of the annual Tennessee Renaissance Festival.[91] Wardrobe for the video—except Swift's dress for the balcony scene, which was designed by Sandi Spika with inspiration and suggestions from Swift—was supplied by Jacquard Fabrics.[91] On the first day, the balcony and field scenes were filmed. The second day's filming included the ballroom scene was filmed with 20 dancers fromCumberland University inLebanon; Swift learned the choreography 15 minutes prior to filming.[91] She invited some fans who were university students from other states to fly to Nashville and film the video with her.[94] "Love Story" premiered on September 12, 2008, onCMT.[95] Behind-the-scenes footage of the music video's production was aired onGreat American Country on November 12, 2008.[96]
The video starts with Swift wearing a black sweater and jeans; she walks through a college campus and sees Gaston reading under a tree. As they make eye contact, the video transitions to a balcony, on which Swift is wearing acorset andgown. The video switches to a ballroom where Gaston and Swift dance together, after which Gaston whispers into Swift's ear. Swift is next shown walking into a garden with a lantern at night. She meets with Gaston and they have a date before parting ways. Later, Swift again stands on the balcony looking out from the window. She sees Gaston running across a field towards her and she immediately runs down the staircase to meet him. The video then switches back to the modern-day college campus, where Gaston walks toward Swift and they gaze into each other's eyes, and the video ends.[91]
Spin wrote that the video appears to have been filmed on an "HBO-looking budget" with "elaborate, pseudo-medieval set pieces"; according to the magazine, rather than alluding to Shakespeare'sRomeo and Juliet, the narrative resembles "Rapunzel", especially the part in which Swift's character waits for her lover atop a castle.[97] According toGlamour, Swift's fashion in the video reinforces the lyrical theme, "[She] literally wore a medieval ball gown while playing the Juliet to an actor's Romeo."[98] In a 2010Billboard interview, Swift reflected on the video's fairy-tale-inspired wedding setting: "I'm not really that girl who dreams about her wedding day. It just seems like the idealistic, happy-ever-after [moment]."[99]
"Love Story" won Song of the Year at the Country Awards in 2009 and Pop Awards in 2010, both of which were held byBroadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) to honor the year's most-performed songs on US radio and television.[100] It marked Swift's second consecutive Song of the Year win at the BMI Country Awards, following "Teardrops on My Guitar" in 2008.[101] Swift, who was 20, was the youngest songwriter to win Song of the Year at the BMI Pop Awards.[102] At the AustralianAPRA Awards, "Love Story" was nominated for International Work of the Year.[103]
Swift performing "Love Story" on a flying balcony at theSpeak Now World Tour in 2011
"Love Story" has become a staple in Swift's concerts—as of July 2023, she had performed the song live over 500 times, more than any other song in her discography.[113] The song became a number in Swift's shows during which many couples get engaged, specifically after the bridge that has lyrics about Romeo proposing to Juliet.[114]
"Love Story" was part of the set lists for many of Swift's 2009 headline festival performances, includingHouston Livestock Show and Rodeo,[121]Florida Strawberry Festival,[122]Sound Relief,[123] theCMA Music Festival,[124] andCraven Country Jamboree.[125] She included the song in the set list of her first headlining concert tour theFearless Tour (2009–2010). The song's performances began with backup dancers dressed inVictorian clothing, dancing toPachelbel's Canon as a castle backdrop was projected onto the stage.[126] Swift emerged from below to an upper level of the stage; she wore an 18th-century-styled crimson gown with golden accents.[127] For the final refrain, Swift hid behind backup dancers as she changed into a white wedding dress and a jeweled headband.[128][129] The live performances of "Love Story" were recorded and released on the DVDJourney to Fearless in 2011.[130]
"Love Story" was the final song on the set list of Swift's second headlining tour, theSpeak Now World Tour (2011–2012).[131] Swift wore a white sundress and sang the song while roaming across the stage on a flying balcony as confetti rained down and fireworks exploded on stage.[132] The song was part of Swift's performance atBBC Radio 1's Teen Awards in October 2012; she appeared in a white dress before changing into silverhot pants and a sheer black top.[133] Swift sang the song later the same month as part of aVH1 Storytellers episode that was recorded atHarvey Mudd College in California.[134] On January 25, 2013, Swift performed an acoustic version of "Love Story" at theLos Premios 40 Principales in Spain.[135] She again included the song in the set list of her third headlining tourthe Red Tour (2013–2014), in which she sang it while wearing a white gown.[136]
At the2014 iHeartRadio Music Awards, Swift performed anarena rock version of "Love Story".[137] During concerts of her fourth headlining tourthe 1989 World Tour (2015), she rearranged the song as asynth-pop ballad and sang it while standing on an elevated platform that whisked around the venue.[138][139] Commenting on the 1989 World Tour rearrangement, Jane Song fromPaste said "Love Story" "will continue to be one of [Swift's] calling cards".[52] Swift again included "Love Story" in the set list of her fifth concert tour, 2018'sReputation Stadium Tour, in which she performed it as part of a medley with her singles "Style" and "You Belong with Me".[140]
"Love Story" has been parodied and adapted into popular-culture events. For the 2009 CMT Music Awards, Swift and the rapperT-Pain recorded a parody titled "Thug Story", in which they rap and sing withAuto-Tune; the parody aired as part of the awards ceremony'scold open.[146] In August 2020, an unofficialhouse remix of "Love Story" by the American DJDisco Lines wentviral on the video-sharing platformTikTok.[147] The Disco Lines remix charted at number 37 on Poland's airplay chart in October 2020.[148] Following the cancellation of Swift's three Eras Tour shows atErnst-Happel-Stadion inVienna due to aterror plot, the British rock bandColdplay and the American singerMaggie Rogers covered "Love Story" on theMusic of the Spheres World Tour at the same venues weeks later as a tribute.[149]
After signing a new contract withRepublic Records, Swift began re-recording her first six studio albums, includingFearless, in November 2020.[203] The decision came after a2019 public dispute between Swift and the talent managerScooter Braun, who acquired Big Machine Records, including themasters of Swift's albums the label had released.[204][205] By re-recording her catalog, Swift had full ownership of the new masters, including the copyright licensing of her songs, devaluing the Big Machine-owned masters.[206]
Swift re-recorded "Love Story" and titled it "Love Story (Taylor's Version)". An excerpt of the re-recording was used in aMatch.com advertisement in December 2020.[207] "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" was the first re-recorded track she released;[208] it was made available for download and streaming on February 12, 2021, preceding the release of the re-recorded albumFearless (Taylor's Version) in April.[209][210] AnEDM version of "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" remixed by Swedish producerElvira was released on March 26, 2021, and was included on the deluxe edition ofFearless (Taylor's Version).[211]
"Love Story (Taylor's Version)" was produced by Swift and the Nashville-based producerChristopher Rowe. It was recorded by David Payne at Blackbird Studio, with additional recording by Rowe at Prime Recording and Studio 13, all of which are in Nashville. Sam Holland recorded Swift's vocals atConway Recording Studios in Los Angeles;Serban Ghenea mixed the re-recording at MixStar Studios inVirginia Beach, Virginia; andRandy Merrill mastered it at Sterling Sound inEdgewater, New Jersey.[212] Swift invited some of the musicians who worked on the 2008 version to re-record with her; these participants includeJonathan Yudkin on fiddle, Amos Heller on bass guitar, and Caitlin Evanson on harmony vocals; they were part of Swift's touring band and had played "Love Story" with her many times.[212]
According to critics, the production of "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" is faithful to that of the 2008 version.[212][213] They noticed changes in thetimbre of Swift's vocals, which have a fuller tone and an absence of the country-music twang;[27][214]The Atlantic's Shirley Li found Swift's voice "much richer" with a controlled tone and precisestaccato.[215] Swift said re-recording "Love Story" made her realize how she had improved as a singer and how her "voice was so teenaged" in the old recordings.[216]
The re-recording's instruments are sharper and more distinct, with clearer sounds of the banjo, cymbals, and fiddle; stronger drums; a more-clearly defined bass; less-harsh electric guitars; and lowered harmonies in the mix.[25][214][217] InBillboard, Kristen He said whereas the instruments on the 2008 version blended into a "wall of sound", the production of "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" highlighted individual instruments.[25]
In reviews, critics praised "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" for being faithful to the original version and felt it was improved upon with polished production and Swift's mature vocals.[214][215][218] A few welcomed the re-recording as Swift's display of ownership of her music.[213][217] Reviews fromRolling Stone's Simon Vozick-Levinson andLos Angeles Times's Mikael Wood dubbed the re-recording an update of a "classic" song about teenage sentiments.[213][219] Mark Savage from BBC News said Swift's improved vocals retain the teenage feelings,[214] butThe Atlantic's Shirley Li andNME's Hannah Mylrea said they were more powerful, which introduces a sense of wistfulness and therefore loses the earnestness of the 2008 version.[215][218] According toRobert Christgau, "Swift's voice retains a great deal of freshness" but he questioned the value of re-recordings in general, adding that he could not see himself buying them.[220]
In the United States, "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" debuted atop the Hot Country Songs chart, giving Swift her eighth number-one single and first number-one debut. With this achievement, she became the first artist to lead the chart in the 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s, and the second artist to have a number one with both the original and re-recorded version of a song, afterDolly Parton with "I Will Always Love You". On otherBillboard charts, "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" toppedDigital Song Sales (Swift's record-extending 22nd number one),Country Digital Song Sales (record-extending 15th number one), andCountry Streaming Songs. The song debuted and peaked at number 11 on theBillboard Hot 100, her record-extending 129th chart entry.[221] The re-recording peaked at number seven on theBillboard Global 200.[57] It topped the singles chart in Malaysia[222] and reached the top 10 in Canada,[76] Ireland,[223] and Singapore.[224] It also charted at number 12 in the United Kingdom,[225] where it was certified gold,[226] and number 18 in New Zealand.[227]
In October 2021,Billboard reported radio stations in the United States played "Love Story (Taylor's Version)" and other re-recordings infrequently compared to the originals; reasons given were that the re-recordings were insufficiently distinctive, that they had less audience demand for Swift's older songs than her newer ones, and they were difficult to categorize inradio format terms, as well as there being no financial incentive from Swift to promote the re-recordings to radio as radio stations do not have to pay the owners of the master recording every time they play a song and Swift would still receive songwriting royalties no matter what version was played.[228] At the2022 CMT Music Awards, the re-recording won the inaugural Trending Comeback Song of the Year; CMT created the category to honor "iconic stars and their hits that not only stood the test of time but also recently found new popularity".[229]
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