| Louisiana French | |
|---|---|
| Français louisianais | |
 The flag ofFrench Louisiana | |
| Native to | United States |
| Region | French Louisiana (New Orleans,Cajun Country), southeasternTexas |
| Ethnicity | Louisiana French (Cajun,Creole) |
Native speakers | 77,000 (1.6% of the population). (2022)[1] |
Early forms | |
| Official status | |
Official language in |  Louisiana |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | frc |
| Glottolog | caju1236 Cajun French |
| ELP | Cajun French |
| Linguasphere | 51-AAA-iie |
 Blue indicates Louisianaparishes where French was commonly spoken in 2011. | |
 Louisiana French is classified as Severely Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger [2] | |
Louisiana French (Louisiana French:Français louisianais;Louisiana Creole:françé la lwizyàn) is an umbrella term for the dialects andvarieties of the French language spoken traditionally byFrench Louisianians in colonialLower Louisiana. As of today Louisiana French is primarily used in the state ofLouisiana, specifically in its southernparishes.
Over the centuries, the language has incorporated some words ofAfrican,Spanish,Native American andEnglish origin, sometimes giving it linguistic features found only in Louisiana.[3][4][5][6] Louisiana French differs to varying extents from French dialects spoken in other regions, but Louisiana French is mutually intelligible with other dialects and is most closely related to those ofMissouri (Upper Louisiana French),New England,Canada and northwestern France.
Historically, most works of media and literature produced in Louisiana—such asLes Cenelles, a poetry anthology compiled by a group ofgens de couleur libres, andCreole-authored novels such asL'Habitation St-Ybars orPouponne et Balthazar—were written in standard French. It is a misconception that no one in Louisiana spoke or wrote Standard French.[7] The resemblance that Louisiana French bears to Standard French varies depending on the dialect and register, with formal and urban variants in Louisiana more closely resembling Standard French.
TheUnited States Census' 2007American Community Survey estimated that 3.5% of Louisianans over the age of 5 spoke French or aFrench-based creole at home.[8] As of 2023,The Advocate roughly estimated that there were 120,000 French speakers in Louisiana, including about 20,000 Cajun French, but noted that their ability to provide an accurate assessment was very limited. These numbers were down from roughly a million speakers in the 1960s.[9] Distribution of these speakers is uneven, however, with the majority residing in the south-central region known asAcadiana. Some of the Acadiana parishes register francophone populations of 10% or more of the total, with a select few (such as Vermilion, Evangeline and St. Martin Parishes) exceeding 15%.[citation needed]
French is spoken across ethnic and racial lines by people who may identify asCajuns,Creoles as well asChitimacha,Houma,Biloxi,Tunica,Choctaw,Acadians, andFrench Indians among others.[7][10] For these reasons, as well as the relatively small influenceAcadian French has had on the region, the labelLouisiana French orLouisiana Regional French (French:français régional louisianais) is generally regarded as more accurate and inclusive than "Cajun French" and is the preferred term bylinguists andanthropologists.[11][12][13][14] However,"Cajun French" is commonly used inlay discourse by speakers of the language and other inhabitants of Louisiana.[6]
Louisiana French should further not be confused withLouisiana Creole, a distinctFrench-based creole language indigenous to Louisiana and spoken across racial lines. In Louisiana, language labels are often conflated with ethnic labels, and Cajun-identified speakers might therefore call their language "Cajun French" even when linguists would identify it asLouisiana Creole.[15] Likewise, manyCreoles of various backgrounds (including Cajuns) do not speak Louisiana Creole but rather Louisiana French.
Parishes in which the dialect is still found includeAcadia,Allen,Ascension,Assumption,Avoyelles,Cameron,Evangeline,Iberia,Jefferson Davis,Lafayette,Lafourche,St. Landry,St. Martin,St. Mary,Terrebonne,Pointe Coupée,Vermilion, and other parishes of southern Louisiana.
Starting in the second half of the 17th century, several trading posts were established inLower Louisiana (French:Basse-Louisiane) eventually giving way to greater French colonial aspirations with the turn of the century. French immigration was at its peak during the 17th and 18th centuries which firmly established the Creole culture and language there. One important distinction to make is that the term "créole" at the time was consistently used to signify native, or "locally-born" in contrast to "foreign-born". In general the core of the population was rather diverse, coming from all over theFrench colonial empire namelyCanada,France, and theFrench West Indies.[16]
Eventually, with the consistent relations built between the Native American tribes and francophones, new vocabulary was adopted into the colonial language. For example, something of a "French-Choctaw patois" is said to have developed primarily among Louisiana's Afro-French population andmétis Creoles with a large portion of its vocabulary said to be of Native American origin.[17]
Prior to the late arrival of theAcadian people in Louisiana, the French of Louisiana had already begun to undergochanges as noted by Captain Jean-Bernard Bossu who traveled with and witnessedJean-Baptiste Le Moyne speaking this "common language."[18] This unusual blend of French was also noticed by Pierre-Clement de Laussat during a lunch visit with the Creole-French Canterelle family. Upon the arrival of theirHouma relatives, the family began conversing in "French and Choctaw."[19] Additional witness to this variety of French comes from J.F.H. Claiborne, a cousin of Louisiana's first American governor, who also noted the "unusual patois of provincial French and Choctaw."[20]
Starting in 1755, large populations of theFrench-speaking Acadians began to arrive en masse along the Mississippi River as well as eventually arriving all the way to south to the modern-day state of Louisiana following theGreat Upheaval. In 1762, France relinquished their territorial claims to Spain just as Acadians had begun to arrive; despite this, Spanish governorBernardo de Gálvez, permitted the Acadians to continue to speak their language as well as observe their other cultural practices. The original Acadian community was composed mainly of farmers and fishermen who were able to provide their children with a reasonable amount of schooling.
However, the hardships after being exiled fromNova Scotia, along with the difficult process of resettlement in Louisiana and the ensuing poverty made it difficult to establish schools in the early stages of the community's development. Eventually schools were established, as private academies whose faculty had recently arrived in Louisiana from France or who had been educated in France. Children were usually able to attend the schools only long enough to learn counting and reading.[21] At the time, a standard part of a child's education in the Cajun community was also theCatholiccatechism, which was taught in French by an older member of the community.[21] The educational system did not allow for much contact withStandard French.[21] It has often been said thatAcadian French has had a large impact on the development of Louisiana French but this has generally been over-estimated.[12][14]
French immigration continued in the 19th century until the start of theAmerican Civil War, bringing large numbers of francophones speaking something more similar to today's Metropolitan French. Over time, throughcontact between different ethnic groups, the various dialectsconverged to produce what we know as Louisiana French.[22] The 1845 Louisiana constitution permitted any legislator to address the body in either English or French, and the 1845 and 1852 constitutions required all laws to be written in both English and French.[23]
The 1864 Louisiana constitution abandoned the dual language requirement and directed public instruction to be conducted in English, although Article 128 prohibited the state from barring French speakers from public office. The post-Civil War constitution of 1868 further stated that "no laws shall require judicial process to be issued in any [language] other than the English language". However, French was still the most spoken language in many parishes of Louisiana, and the constitution of 1879 adjusted the previous restrictions to require that laws "be promulgated and preserved in the English language; but the General Assembly may provide for the publication of the laws in the French Language, and prescribe that judicial advertisements in certain designated cities and parishes...be made in that language." It also allowed primary school to teach in French, a provision that was extended in the 1898 and 1913 constitutions to include secondary schools.[23]
In 1921, the newLouisiana constitution reversed the previous language rights and banned the teaching of French in all public schools.[23] The constitution established English as the official language of Louisiana, which pushed French out of New Orleans to its current location in southwestern parts of the state.[24] The education and religious services of Louisiana eventually fell prey to English, and the eventual consequence of speaking French was that speaking French became a sign of cultural illegitimacy.[24] Parents viewed the practice of teaching their children English as the intrusion of a foreign culture, and many refused to send their children to school. When the government required them to do so, they selected private FrenchCatholic schools in which class was conducted in French.[citation needed] Derogatory terms and phrases were used by English speakers to put social pressure on French speakers ("Don't speak Cajun. Speak White!"),[25] a sentiment later criticized by the Québécois poet Michèle Lalonde's in her 1974 poem "Speak White" ("Speak white... be civilized").[26] The French schools worked to emphasize Standard French, which they considered to be theprestige dialect. When the governmentrequired all schools, public andparochial, to teach in English, new teachers, who could not speak French, were hired. Children could not understand their teachers and generally ignored them by continuing to speak French. Eventually, children were subjected tocorporal punishment for speaking French on school grounds.[21]
The punishment system (which was not dissimilar to the manner in which children attempting to speak both immigrant and indigenous languages other than English were dealt with in schools elsewhere in North America) seems to have been responsible for much of the decay that Louisiana French experienced in the 20th century since, in turn, people who could not speak English were perceived as uneducated. Therefore, parents became hesitant to teach French to their children, hoping that the children would have a better life in an English-speaking nation.[21] As of 2011, there were an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people in Louisiana who spoke French. By comparison, there were an estimated one million native French-speakers in Louisiana in about 1968. While French is now taught in schools, the local dialect is now at risk of extinction as children are no longer taught it.
As of 2007[update], there were questions whether the Louisiana French language would survive into another generation.[27] Some residents ofAcadiana arebilingual though, having learned French at home and English in school. Currently, Louisiana French is considered anendangered language.
The war compelled many Cajun people to leave their home state of Louisiana for the first time and serve in the military.[28] Cajun GIs, most of whom could neither speak nor understand English, encountered solely English-speaking Americans and learned it to serve and survive in the military.[28]
Back on the home front, many Cajun civilians united with other Anglo-Americans to support the war effort by volunteering as air raid wardens, plane spotters, firefighters, auxiliary policemen, nursing aides, as well as participating in bond, stamp, and scrap drives.[29] These activities which the Cajuns participated in promoted feelings of national unity, and drew the Cajuns closer to Mainstream America.[29] During this time period, emphasis on the 'American way of life' had a massive impact on Cajun children: census data shows that the use of Cajun French as a first language dropped 17 percent for Cajuns born during US involvement in WW2, the single largest decrease since the beginning of the 20th century, and also resulted in the practice of punishing Cajun students for speaking French at school.[29]
Marilyn J. Conwell of Pennsylvania State University conducted a study of Louisiana French in 1959 and published in 1963 the bookLouisiana French Grammar, which has been regarded as "probably the first complete study of a Louisiana French dialect".[30] Conwell focused on the French spoken inLafayette, Louisiana, and evaluated what was then its current status. She pointed out that the gradual decline of French made it "relatively common" to find "grand-parents who speak only French, parents who speak both French and English, children who speak English and understand French, and grand-children who speak and understand only English." The decision to teach French to children was well-received since grandparents hoped for better opportunities for communicating with their grandchildren.[30]
TheCouncil for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL) was established in 1968 to promote the preservation of French language and culture in Louisiana.[31] The Louisiana state legislature has greatly shifted its stance on the status of French. Since the passage of Legislative Act No. 409 in 1968, the Louisiana governor is granted the authorization "to establish the Council for the Development of Louisiana-French" and that the agency is to consist of no more than fifty members, including a chairman. The name was soon changed to CODOFIL and was granted the power to "do anything possible and necessary to encourage the development, usage and preservation of French as it exists in Louisiana".[32]
In 1984, Jules O. Daigle, aRoman Catholic priest, publishedA Dictionary of the Cajun Language the first dictionary devoted to "Cajun French". Once considered an authority on the language, it is however not exhaustive; it omits alternate spellings and synonyms that Father Daigle deemed "perversions" of the language but are nonetheless popular among so-called Louisiana French speakers and writers.[33] Though remaining useful today, Daigle's dictionary has been superseded by theDictionary of Louisiana French (2010), edited by Albert Valdman and other authorities on the language.[7]
In 1984 as well,Alliance Française of New Orleans, the French educational and cultural center, was founded and moved in 1987 in his current premises on Jackson Avenue in New Orleans.
Beginning in the 1990s, various signage, packaging, and documentation in French became present throughout the state. State and local tourism bureau commissions were influential in convincing city, parish and state officials to produce bilingual signage and documentation. French and English bilingual signage is, therefore, usually confined to the old districts of cities, like theFrench Quarter in New Orleans, downtownLafayette andNew Iberia (trilingual with Spanish),St. Martinville,Breaux Bridge, as well as several other cities. Locals continue to refer to the place names in English and for postal services, English is generally preferred. To meet the demands of a growing francophone tourist market, tourism bureaus and commissions throughout the state, particularly in southern Louisiana, have information on tourist sites in both French and English as well as in other major languages spoken by tourists.
 | This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(January 2024) |
Many young adults are learning enough French to understand French music lyrics.[citation needed] Also, there is now a trend to use French-language websites to learn the dialect. Culinary words and terms of endearment such as "cher"[ʃæ] (dear) and "nonc" (uncle) are still heard among otherwiseEnglish-speaking Louisianians.
An article written online by theUniversité Laval argues that the state of Louisiana's shift, from an anti-French stance to one of soft promotion has been of great importance to the survival of the language. The article states that it is advantageous to invigorate the revival of the language, to better cherish the state's rich heritage, and to protect a francophone minority that has suffered greatly from negligence by political and religious leaders. Furthermore, the university's article claims that it is CODOFIL rather than the state itself which setslanguage policy; the only political stance the state of Louisiana makes is that of noninterference. All of this culminates in the fact that outside the extremely southern portions of the state, French remains a secondary language that retains heavy cultural and identity values.[34]
According to Jacques Henry, former executive director of CODOFIL, much progress has been made for francophones and the future of French in Louisiana is not merely a symbolic one. According to statistics gathered by CODOFIL, the past twenty years has seen widespread acceptance of French-immersion programs. He goes further to write that the official recognition, appreciation by parents, and inclusion of French in schools reflects growing regard of the language. Ultimately the survival of French in Louisiana can only be guaranteed by Louisianan parents and politicians, but that there is still hope.[35] Similarly, the state legislature passed the Louisiana French Language Services Act in 2011 with particular mention to cultural tourism, local culture, and heritage. The bill sets forth that each branch of the state government shall take necessary action to identify employees who are proficient in French. Each branch of the state government is to take necessary steps in producing services in the French language for both locals and visitors. This bill is, however, an unfunded state mandate.[36] The legislative act was drafted and presented by francophone andfrancophile senators and representatives as it asserts that the French language is vital to the economy of the state.
In October 2018, through an initiative launched by Scott Tilton and Rudy Bazenet, Louisiana became the first U.S. state to join theOrganisation Internationale de la Francophonie.[37] Since Louisiana joined the Francophonie, new organizations have launched to help revitalize Louisiana French, including the Nous Foundation andAlliance Française of New Orleans.
Grassroots initiatives remain popular among francophone subsections of Louisianian society, often organized through online platforms such as Facebook. French-language initiatives founded in the late 2010s and early 2020s include Télé-Louisiane, a multimedia platform; Charrer-Veiller, a podcast (defunct as of 2022); LaCréole, another podcast; andLe Bourdon de la Louisiane, a web gazette. Poetry remains the most popular medium of literary expression, with poets such as Kirby Jambon and Ashlee Michot receiving international attention.
As with other cases of language revitalization (such asIrish), young Louisianians may speak a more standardized French than their forebears, having learned French both at school and via the greater community. Among such youths, the influence of vernacular Louisiana French on their speech patterns varies from speaker to speaker, depending on such factors as ethnic background, socioeconomic class, exposure to francophones of the elder generation, educational level, political beliefs and personal preference.
Given increased levels of education in Standard French and greater exposure to the internationalfrancophonie, it is likely Louisiana French will continue to evolve in this manner, with some traditionally Louisianian words and linguistic features being retained while others slowly fade.
Reliable counts of speakers of Louisiana French are difficult to obtain as distinct from other varieties of French. However, the vast majority of native residents of Louisiana and east and southeast Texas who speak French are likely speakers of Louisiana French.
In Louisiana, as of 2010[update], the population of French speakers was approximately 115,183.[38] These populations were concentrated most heavily in the southern, coastal parishes.
In Texas, as of 2010[update], the French-speaking population was 55,773, though many of these were likely to be immigrants from France or other French-speaking countries who moved to cities and suburbs all over the state.[38] Nevertheless, in the rural eastern-southeastern Texas counties ofOrange,Jefferson,Chambers,Newton,Jasper,Tyler,Liberty, andHardin alone—areas where it can be reasonably presumed that almost all French speakers are Louisiana French speakers—the total French-speaking population was composed of 3,400 individuals. It is likely a substantial portion of the 14,493 speakers in Houston'sHarris County are also Louisiana French speakers. With this in mind, a marked decline in the number of French speakers in Texas has been noticed in the last half of the twentieth century. For example, at one point[when?] the French-speaking population of Jefferson County was 24,049 as compared to the mere 1,922 today. Likewise, in Harris County the French-speaking population has shifted from 26,796 to 14,493 individuals.[39]
Louisiana French-speaking populations can also be found in southern Mississippi and Alabama, as well as pockets in other parts of the United States.
Despite ample time for Louisiana French to diverge, the basic grammatical core of the language remains similar or the same as Standard French.[33] Even so, it can be expected that the language would begin to diverge due to the various influences of neighboring languages, changing francophone demographics, and unstable opportunities for education. Furthermore, Louisiana French lacks any official regulating body unlike theAcadémie française orOffice québécois de la langue française to take part in standardizing the language.
| Person | Subject Pronoun | Direct Object | Indirect Object | Reflexive | Disjunctive Pronoun |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st singular | je / j' | me / m' | me / m' | me / m' | moi |
| 2nd singular informal | tu / t' | te / t' | te / t' | te / t' | toi |
| 2nd singular formal1 | vous | vous | vous | vous | vous |
| 3rd singular | il (i'); elle (e') / alle (a'); ça | le (l'); la (l') / lé (l') | lui / y | se / s' | lui; elle; ça |
| 1st plural | on; nous2 | nous | nous | se / s' | nous-autres (même) |
| 2nd plural | vous-autres | vous | vous | vous / vous-autres / se / s' | vous-autres (même) |
| 3rd plural | ils; eux-autres; ça; eusse3 | les | leur / y'eux / eux | se / s' | eux-autres; ça; eusse3 |
1. the formal second-person singular form is rarely used
2.nous is only present in formal language
3.eusse/euse is confined to the southeastern parishes of Louisiana
Immediately some distinct characteristics of Louisiana French can be gleaned from its personal pronouns. For example, the traditional third-person singular feminine pronounelle of Standard French is present but also there is the alternative ofalle which is chosen by some authors since it more closely approximates speakers' pronunciation. Also, use of the pronounils has supplanted the third-person feminine pronounelles as it is used to refer to both masculine and feminine subjects.[40] Similarly, all of the other third-person plural pronouns are neutral. The usage of-autres with plural pronouns is widespread in the language.
In order to demonstrate the use of some of the indicative verb tenses in Louisiana French, take the example ofmanger, meaning "to eat":
| Person | Present | Present Progressive | Passé Composé | Imperfect | Conditional | Near Future | Future |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st singular | je mange j'mange | je / j'suis après manger je / j'suis apé manger | j'ai mangé | je mangeais j'mangeais | je mangerais j'mangerais | je vas manger j'vas manger | je mangeras j'mangeras |
| 2nd singular informal | tu manges | t'es après manger t'es apé manger | t'as mangé | tu mangeais | tu mangerais | tu vas manger | tu mangeras |
| 2nd singular formal | vous mangez | vous êtes après manger vous êtes apé manger | vous avez mangé | vous mangeâtes | vous mangeriez | vous allez manger | vous mangerez |
| 3rd singular | il mange | il est après manger il est apé manger | il a mangé | il mangeait | il mangerait | il va manger | il mangera |
| 1st plural | on mange | on est après manger on est apé manger | on a mangé | on mangeait | on mangerait | on va manger | on mangera |
| 2nd plural | vous-autres mange | vous-autres est après manger vous-autres est apé manger | vous-autres a mangé | vous-autres mangeait | vous-autres mangerait | vous-autres va manger | vous-autres mangera |
| 3rd plural | ils mangent ils mangeont | ils sont après manger ils sont apé manger | ils ont mangé | ils mangeaient ils mangiont | ils mangeraient ils mangeriont | ils vont manger | ils mangeront |
Some minor simplification of tenses is exhibited in the conjugation of the verbmanger, namely of the plural first and second person conjugations which are inflected identically to the third person singular. Not only this, but the inflection of the third person plural verb form has diverged between the form identical to Standard French and the use of-ont in for all verbs.
Theelision that is common in many aspects of French is accelerated in Louisiana French with theschwa inje often omitted regardless of the presence of a following vowel as well as the regular use oft'es (tu es) and t'as (tu as) as opposed to such avoidance in Standard French.
The present progressive tense of Louisiana French initially appears alien as compared to Standard French butaprès/apé possesses the same function signified byen train de.
Unlike Standard French, vernacular Louisiana French may avoid article-preposition contractions involving the prepositionsde ordes:
Such contraction avoidance is a purely oral phenomenon, and written registers in Louisiana do not highly differ from Standard French. In novels, newspapers, government documents, plays, letters, etc., written from the colonial era to the early twentieth century, it would be unusual to seede le used in place ofdu, orde les in place ofdes.
Place names in Louisiana French may differ from those in Standard French. For instance, locales named forAmerican Indian tribes usually use the plural articleles instead of the masculine or feminine singular articlesle orla. Likewise, the contractionaux (à andles) is used with such locations. This trend seems to vary by region since inPierre Part andLafayette elderly francophones have often been heard to sayla Californie, le Texas, la Floride. In informal Louisiana French, most US states and countries are pronounced as in English and therefore require no article but in formal Louisiana French, prefixed articles are absent:Californie, Texas, Floride, Belgique, Liban, etc.
| English | Louisiana French | Standard French | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Informal | Formal | ||
| Carencro | (le/au bayou) Carencro; St-Pierre | Carencro; St-Pierre | Carencro |
| New Iberia | Ibérie | la Nouvelle-Ibérie | la Nouvelle-Ibérie |
| Natchitoches | (les/aux) Natchitoches | (les/aux) Natchitoches | Natchitoches |
| New Orleans | en ville | la Nouvelle-Orléans | la Nouvelle-Orléans |
| Arkansas | (les/aux) Arcs | (les/aux) Arcs | l'Arkansas |
| Illinois | (les/aux) Illinois | (les/aux) Illinois | l'Illinois |
| Lake Charles | (le/au) Lac-Charles | (le/au) Lac-Charles | Lac-Charles |
Code-switching occurs frequently in Louisiana French but this is typical for many language contact situations.[41] Code-switching was once viewed as a sign of poor education, but it is now understood to be an indication of proficiency in the two different languages that a speaker uses. Fluent Louisiana French speakers frequently alternate between French, English, and Creole, but less proficient speakers usually do not.[42]
From a lexical perspective, Louisiana French differs little from other varieties of French spoken in the world. However, due to the unique history and development of the language, Louisiana French has many words that are unique to it or to select French varieties.
| English | Louisiana French | Standard French | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| car | un char | une voiture, une auto | † |
| ball | une pelote | un ballon | |
| catfish | une barbue | un poisson-chat | |
| cookie | une galette | un biscuit, un petit gâteau (sec) | |
| courthouse | une maison de cour | un tribunal, un palais de justice | |
| dollar (U.S. dollar), currency | un piastre | un dollar | † |
| dude | un bougre | un gars, un individu, un type | |
| eggplant, aubergine | une brème | une aubergine | |
| goat | un cabri | une chèvre | |
| noise | du train | du bruit | † |
| now (right now) | drette-là, asteur, asteur-là | maintenant, tout de suite | † |
| possum, opossum | un rat de bois | un opossum | |
| raccoon | un chaoui | un raton-laveur | |
| shoe | un soulier | une chaussure | † |
| shrimp | une chevrette | une crevette | |
| tail (of an animal) | une tcheu | une queue | |
| to look at | guetter, garder | regarder | |
| where, where to | àyoù, etyoù, éyoù | où | |
| why | quoi faire, pourquoi | pourquoi |
† The Louisiana French expression is also used at times inCanadian French, with "un soulier" used formally and other expressions used informally.
| Term | Gloss | Origin |
|---|---|---|
| Bayouⓘ | Bayou | Choctawbayuk |
| chaouiⓘ | raccoon | Choctaw orMobilian:shaui |
| choupiqueⓘ | bowfin | Choctaw:shupik "mudfish" |
| latanierⓘ | palmetto | Carib:allatani |
| pacaneⓘ | pecan | Algonquian via Mobilian |
| patassaⓘ | sunfish | Choctaw: patàssa "flat" |
| plaquemineⓘ | persimmon | Illinois via Mobilian:piakimin |
| tchocⓘ | blackbird | Possibly Atakapa:t'sak |
Il y avait une fois ildrivait, il travaillait huit jourson et six joursoff. Et ildrivait, tu sais, six joursoff. Ça le prendrait vingt-quatre heuresstraight through. Et là il restait quatre jours ici et il retournait.So quand la seconde fois ç'a venu,well, il dit, "Moi, si tu viens pas," il dit, "je vas pas." Ça fait que là j'ai été.Boy! Sa pauvre mère. "Vas pas!"
One time he was driving, he was working eight days on and six days off. And he was driving, y'know, six days off. It would take him twenty-four hours straight through. And he would stay here four days and then go back. So when the second time came, well, he said, "If you don't come," he said, "I'm not going." So I went. Boy! His poor mother. "Don't go!" she said. "Don't go!"— Carl Blyth,French and Creole in Louisiana. New York, N.Y.: Plenum Press. p. 40.ISBN 0-306-45464-5.
Le samedi après-midi on allait puis ...wringer le cou de la volaille. Et le dimanche,well, dimanche ça c'était notre meilleure journée qu'on avait plus de bon manger. Ma mèrefreezait de la volaille et on avait de la poutine aux craquettes.
Saturday afternoon we would go ... wring the chicken's neck. And on Sunday, well, Sunday, that was our best day for eating well. My mother would freeze some chicken and we would have some poutine of croquettes.— Carl Blyth,French and Creole in Louisiana. New York, N.Y.: Plenum Press. p. 41.ISBN 0-306-45464-5.
Francophones and creolophones have worked side-by-side, lived among one another, and have enjoyed local festivities together throughout the history of the state. As a result, in regions where both Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole are or used to be spoken, the inhabitants of the region often code-switch, beginning the sentence in one language and completing it in another.[4][43][44][45][46]
Taxonomies for classing Louisiana French have changed over time.[47][48][6][49][50]
In 1968, Lafayette nativeJames Domengeaux, a former US Representative, created theCouncil for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL), whose mission was to oversee the promotion, visibility, and expansion of French language usage in Louisiana. His mission was clear: (re)create a European French bastion in Louisiana by making all Louisianans bilingual in International French and English. To accomplish his goals, he teamed up with political leaders in Canada and France, including former French PresidentGeorges Pompidou. He found Louisiana French too limiting, so he imported francophone teachers from Europe, Canada and the Caribbean to teach normative French in Louisiana schools. His penchant for International French caused him to lose support in Louisiana: most Louisianans, if they were going to have French in Louisiana schools, wanted Louisiana French, not "Parisian French."[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59]
Simultaneously, an ethnic movement took root in southern Louisiana led by Acadian-Creoles like James Donald Faulk,Dudley Joseph Leblanc and Jules O. Daigle. Faulk, a French teacher inCrowley, Louisiana, introduced using the term "Cajun French" for Acadian-Creoles and French Creoles who identified as Cajun, for which he created a curriculum guide for institutionalizing the language in schools in 1977. Roman Catholic Priest Jules O. Daigle, who in 1984 published hisDictionary of the Cajun Language, followed him. "Cajun French" is intended to imply the French spoken in Louisiana by descendants of Acadians, an ethnic qualifier rather than a linguistic relationship.[47][48][60]
In 2009, Iberia Parish native and activist Christophe Landry introduced three terms representing lexical differences based on Louisiana topography: Provincial Louisiana French (PLF), Fluvial Louisiana French (FLF), and Urban Louisiana French (ULF).[61] That same year, theDictionary of Louisiana French: As Spoken in Cajun, Creole, and American Indian Communities, was published. It was edited by a coalition of linguists and other activists. The title clearly suggests that the ethno-racial identities are mapped onto the languages, but the language, at least linguistically, remains shared across those ethno-racial lines.[46]
Due to present ethnic movements and internal subdivisions among the population, some of the state's inhabitants insist on ancestral varieties. As a result, it is not odd to hear the language referred to as Canadian French, Acadian French, Broken French, Old French, Creole French, Cajun French, and so on. Still other Louisiana francophones will simply refer to their language as French, without qualifiers. Internally, two broad distinctions will be made:informal Louisiana French andformal Louisiana French.[6][48][62][63][12]
Probably the widely used variety of the language, informal Louisiana French has its roots in agrarian Louisiana, but it is now also found in urban centers because of urbanization beginning in the 20th century. Historically, along the prairies of southwest Louisiana, francophone Louisianans were cattle grazers as well as rice and cotton farmers. Along the bayous and the Louisiana littoral, sugar cane cultivation dominated and in many parishes today, sugar cultivation remains an important source of economy. Informal Louisiana French can at least be divided further into three core varieties:Fluvial,Provincial, andBayou Lafourche Louisiana French.
The phonology of these varieties, apart from some minor distinctions, are rather similar and distinct in comparison to the international francophone community. A key feature of the dialect would likely be the pronunciation of the letter "r" as analveolar consonant/ɾ/ rather than auvular consonant like in Standard French. Vowels are commonly omitted from the beginning and end of for words: "américain → "méricain" or "espérer → spérer." Likewise, the letter "é" preceding "o" frequently erodes in the spoken informal varieties: "léonide →lonide" or "cléophas →clophas." The nasality and pitch of the language is akin to that associated with provincial speech in Québec. In terms of nasality, Louisiana French is similar to French spoken inBrussels andDakar, Senegal. The pitch of Provincial Louisiana French and Provincial Quebec French share a predominantly agricultural history, close contact withAmerindian groups and relative isolation from urbanized populations.[49][59][64][65]
Particular mention should be made to the francophones ofBayou Lafourche, who speak a linguistic feature that is absent everywhere else in Louisiana. Some francophones along Bayou Lafourche pronounce the letters "g" and "j" as avoiceless glottal fricative, but others pronounce the two letters in the manner of most other francophones.[66][67][68]
Two theories exist to explain the feature:
TheLouisiana Creole spoken in Lafourche Parish in and aroundKraemer,Choctaw, andChackbay contains the letters "g" and "j," but they are voiced as they are in all other varieties of Louisiana and French that are spoken elsewhere.
French inEvangeline Parish often hews closer to French from Canada and France, due to its relatively recent settlement by French immigrants and low settlement by Acadian refugees compared to other parts of Acadiana. Distinct features include optional affrication of/t,d/.[72]
This variety is known for its use in all administrative and ecclesiastic documents, speeches, and literary publications. Also known as "Urban Louisiana French," "Colonial French," or "Plantation Society French," it is spoken primarily in the urban business centers of the state. Because those regions have historically been centers of trade and commerce with contact with French-speakers from Europe, it is regarded as a more conservative variety of the language. Areas in which the formal variety can be heard includeNew Orleans,Baton Rouge,St. Martinville, and other once important francophone business centers in the state. Generally, formal Louisiana French is maintained along strict class lines.
The phonology of formal Louisiana French shares much in common with Standard French to various degrees depending upon the speaker. As an example, speakers can be heard pronouncing "r" as a uvular constant as opposed to an alveolar. Furthermore, the pronunciation and the intonation of that variety can vary from European to the North American varieties of French. Use of the pronounsnous andvous is far more prevalent in this register, whereasnous has been supplanted byon in the informal varieties.
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| Labial | Dental/ Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ1 | ŋ | ||
| Stop | voiceless | p | t | k | ||
| voiced | b | d | ɡ | |||
| Afficate | voiceless | tʃ | ||||
| voiced | dʒ | |||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | h | |
| voiced | v | z | ʒ | |||
| Approximant | plain | l | j | |||
| labial | ɥ | w | ||||
| Rhotic | r | |||||
^1[ɲ] is rarely used in practice, and is typically lenited to[j̃] with the preceding vowel nasalized.[74]
Louisiana French consonants do not show severe differences from Metropolitan French consonants, except that unlike most of French spoken varieties, which use uvular varieties of r[ʀ,ʁ]; Louisiana French uses the Classic alveolar trill or flap[r,ɾ], just like in Spanish, Italian, and several other Romance languages; e.g.français[frɑ̃sɛ] 'French'. In Terrebonne and Lafourche parishes,/ʒ/ may be pronounced as[h]. This can occasionally apply to/ʃ/,/s/, and/z/ as well.[74][75]
Like in several colloquial varieties of French, some consonant clusters are reduced, especially the ones having the liquids/r/ and/l/. E.g.arbre/ɑrbr/ →[ɑrb] 'tree',possible/pɔsibl/ →[pɔsib] 'possible', astre/astr/ →[ast] →[as] 'star',juste/ʒyst/→[ʒys] 'fair, just'.
In Evangeline parish and nearby areas, dental stops may be affricated before high front vowels and semivowels: in other words,/ty/,/ti/,/tɥ/,/tj/,/dy/,/di/,/dɥ/,/dj/ are then pronounced[t͡sy~t͡ʃy],[t͡si~t͡ʃi],[t͡sɥ~t͡ʃɥ],[t͡sj~t͡ʃj],[d͡zy~d͡ʒy],[d͡zi~d͡ʒi],[d͡zɥ~d͡ʒɥ],[d͡zj~d͡ʒj]. The degree of palatalization depends on the speaker; e.g.petit[pət͡si~pət͡ʃi] 'small, little'.[72]
The velar stops/ky/,/ki/,/kɥ/,/kj/ are optionally affricated[t͡ʃy],[t͡ʃi],[t͡ʃɥ],[t͡ʃj], depending on the speaker; e.g.cuisine[t͡ʃɥizin] 'kitchen, cuisine'. This may apply more to Evangeline parish and nearby areas,[76] but has also been cited as a widespread feature.[72]
In some mesolects, just like in Haitian Creole, general pronunciation may becomenon-rhotic; e.g.parler/pɑrle/ →[pɑːle] 'to speak'.[77]
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^1 Only occurs in words with English origin.[78]
^2 Only used as substitutes for/i,y,u/ when followed by a nasal consonant,[78] or if a following[nj] was nasalized to[j̃].[74]
In Louisiana French,[ɛ] is frequently lowered to either[æ] or[a], especially after/r/.[78]/r/ is also either weakened or dropped in word-final positions after a vowel, leaving behind a lengthened vowel (e.g.,[frɛr] →[frær] →[fræː]).[74]
The/a-ɑ/ distinction seldom exists in Louisiana French. However, a is usually pronounced[ɑ~ɒ~ɔ] when making up the diphthong[wa], before/r/ and when being the last open syllable; e.g.fois[fwɑ~fwɒ~fwɔ] 'time' (frequence),mardi[mɑrd͡zi] 'Tuesday',rat[rɑ~rɒ~rɔ] 'rat'.
Themaître - mettre/ɛː,ɛ/ distinction does not exist.
Like other French varieties,/ə/ can be omitted in fast speech, e.g.je peux/ʒəpø/ →[ʒ‿pø] →[ʃ‿pø] 'I can'.
Like in Quebec French,[i,y,u] may become laxed[ɪ,ʏ,ʊ], depending on the speaker; e.g.musique[myzik~myzɪk~mʏzɪk] 'music'.[77]
Front rounded vowels are sometimes unrounded, with[y,ø,œ] becoming[i,e,ɛ], which notably causestu to be rendered as [ti].[74]
The four nasal vowels have evolved according to their own pattern, similarly, but not the same way, to French spoken by Haitians:/ɑ̃/ →[ã~ɑ̃~ɒ̃],/ɛ̃/ →[ɛ̃~ẽ],/œ̃/ →[œ̃~ø̃],/ɔ̃/ →[ɔ̃~õ].
Words pronounced in Classical French as/ɑ̃m/ and/ɑ̃n/ (usingamm-,ann-,emm-,enn-), are pronounced[ɑm~ɒm~ɔm] and[ɑn~ɒn~ɔn] respectively, rather than[am] and[an] as in Modern French; e.g.femme[fɑm~fɒm~fɔm] 'woman',solennité[sɔlɑnite~sɔlɒnite~sɔlɔnite] 'solemnity',s'enamourer (de)/sɑ̃namure(də)/ 'to fall in love (with)'.[79]
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Folk healers (French:traiteur/traiteuse), are still found throughout the state. During their rituals for healing, they use secret French prayers to God or saints for a speedy recovery. These healers are mostly Catholic and do not expect compensation or even thanks, as it is said that then, the cure will not work.[80][81][82]
Louisiana French has been the traditional language for singing music now referred to as Cajun,zydeco, and Louisiana French rock. As of today, Old French music, Creole stomp, and Louisiana French rock remain the only three genres of music in Louisiana using French instead of English. Most "Cajun" artists have expressions and phrases in French in songs, predominantly sung in English.[83][84][85]
Today one can find many local groups dedicated to practicing Louisiana French regularly, usually over a meal with other interested parties. Many of said groups can be found through the online Cajun French Virtual Table Française:
As of autumn 2011, Louisiana had French-language total immersion or bilingual French and English immersion in ten parishes:Calcasieu,Acadia,St. Landry,St. Martin,Iberia,Lafayette,Assumption,East Baton Rouge,Jefferson andOrleans. The curriculum in both the total French-languageimmersion as well as in thebilingual program follows the same standards as all other schools in the parish and state.
TheCouncil for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL) recruits teachers locally and globally each year. Additionally, Les Amis de l'Immersion, Inc. is the parent-teacher organization for students in French immersion in the state which organizessummer camps, fundraisers and outreach for teachers, parents and students in the program.
| School | Grades | City | Parish |
|---|---|---|---|
| Church Point Elementary | K-4 | Church Point | Acadia |
| Pierre Part Primary | K-4 | Pierre Part | Assumption |
| Pierre Part Middle | 5-8 | Pierre Part | Assumption |
| Belle Rose Primary | K-2 | Belle Rose | Assumption |
| Assumption High | 9 | Napoleonville | Assumption |
| Winbourne Elementary | K | Baton Rouge | East Baton Rouge |
| Henry Heights Elementary | K-5 | Lake Charles | Calcasieu |
| Gillis Elementary | K-5 | Lake Charles | Calcasieu |
| Prien Lake Elementary | K-5 | Lake Charles | Calcasieu |
| Moss Bluff Middle | 6-8 | Lake Charles | Calcasieu |
| S.J. Welsh Middle | 6-8 | Lake Charles | Calcasieu |
| Alfred M. Barbe High | 9-12 | Lake Charles | Calcasieu |
| Daspit Elementary | K-6 | New Iberia | Iberia |
| North Lewis Street Elementary | K-6 | New Iberia | Iberia |
| S. J. Montgomery Elementary | K-3 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Myrtle Place Elementary | K-3 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Prairie Elementary | K-5 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Evangeline Elementary | K-2 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Vermilion Elementary | K-1 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Edgar Martin Middle | 6-7 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Paul Breaux Middle | 6-8 | Lafayette | Lafayette |
| Audubon Montessori | K-8 | New Orleans | Orleans |
| Ecole Bilingue de la Nouvelle-Orléans | Nursery-6 | New Orleans | Orleans |
| Hynes Elementary | K-3 | New Orleans | Orleans |
| International High School of New Orleans | 9-10 | New Orleans | Orleans |
| International School of Louisiana | K-8 | New Orleans | Orleans |
| Lycée Français de la Nouvelle-Orleans | PK-12 | New Orleans | Orleans |
| Park Vista Elementary | K-2 | Opelousas | St. Landry |
| South Street | K-3 | Opelousas | St. Landry |
| Cecilia Primary | K-3 | Cecilia | St. Martin |
| Teche Elementary | 4-6 | Breaux Bridge | St. Martin |
| Cecilia Junior High | 7-8 | Cecilia | St. Martin |
| Cecilia High School | 9-12 | Cecilia | St. Martin |
The Consortium of Louisiana Universities and Colleges unites representatives of French programs in Louisiana universities and colleges, and organizes post-secondary level francophone scholastic exchanges and provide support for university students studying French language and linguistics in Louisiana:
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| National | |
| Other | |
