British 19th century, East Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), late 19th century,National Gallery of Art, NGA 52325
Nelumbo nucifera, also known assacred lotus,Indian lotus,[1] or simplylotus, is one of twoextant species of aquatic plant in thefamilyNelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the familyNymphaeaceae.[2]
Lotus plants are adapted to grow in theflood plains of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife, the remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pondsilts in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony.
Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.[3] Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol oflongevity.
It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to 1,400 m or 4,600 ft in the southern Himalayas[4]), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to theAmur region; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to asNelumbo komarovii, with isolated locations at theCaspian Sea.[5] Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations.[5] It has a very long history (c. 3,000 years) of beingcultivated for its edible seeds[5] and is commonly cultivated inwater gardens.[4] It is thenational flower of India and unofficially Vietnam.
The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of the genusNymphaea, in particularN. caerulea, the "blue lotus." In fact, several older systems, such as theBentham & Hooker system (which is widely used in the Indian subcontinent), refer to the lotus by its old synonym,Nymphaea nelumbo.[citation needed]
While all modernplant taxonomy systems agree that this species belongs in the genusNelumbo, the systems disagree as to which familyNelumbo should be placed in or whether the genus should belong in its own unique family and order. According to theAPG IV system,N. nucifera,N. lutea, and their extinct relatives belong in Proteales with theprotea flowers[6] due to genetic comparisons. Older systems, such as theCronquist system, placeN. nucifera and its relatives in the order Nymphaeles based on anatomical similarities.[7] According to the APG IV classification, the closest relatives ofNelumbo include the sycamores (Platanaceae).
The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to 200 cm (6 ft 7 in) long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth.[8] Thepeltate leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[9][10] The leaves may be as large as 80 cm (31 in) in diameter.[11]
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to 35 cm (14 in) in diameter.[11][12][13][14]
Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese varietyqian ban lian ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3,000 and 4,000 petals in a single blossom[15] and the Japanese varietyohmi myoren ("strange lotus") can have between 2,000 and 5,000 petals,[16] the greatest number recorded for any species of plant.
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.[19]: 132 Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfullygerminated.[20][21]
The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related toNymphaea caerulea, but possesses similar chemistry. BothNymphaea caerulea andNelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloidsnuciferine andaporphine.[22]
Thegenome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.[23][24][25] A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then.
The sacred lotus grows in water up to 2.5 m (8 ft) deep. The minimum water depth is about 30 cm (12 in). In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth andflowering. The sacred lotusgerminates at temperatures above 13 °C (55 °F).[26] Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDAhardiness zones 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.[27] In thegrowing season, from April to September (in thenorthern hemisphere), the average daytime temperature needed is 23 to 27 °C (73 to 81 °F).[28] In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period ofdormancy. Thetubers are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[29] If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely withvermiculite orperlite. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.[30][31]
The sacred lotus requires anutrient-rich andloamy soil.[27] In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere),[32] a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds[33] or directly into a flooded field.[34][35] There are several other propagation ways viaseeds orbuds.[29] Furthermore,tissue culture is a promising propagation method for the future to produce high volumes of uniform,true-to-type, disease-free materials.[36]
The first step of the cultivation is toplough the dry field. One round ofmanure is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low[35] and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately 4,000 per hectare (1,600/acre) with grid spacing of 1.2 by 2 metres (3 ft 11 in × 6 ft 7 in)[36] are used to plant directly into themud 10–15 cm (3+7⁄8–5+7⁄8 in) below thesoil surface.[37]
Thestolon is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.[35]
The firstleaves and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during the colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months.[35]
Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. Aftersun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos.[35][29]
The rhizomes mature to a suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months.[37] Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained.[29][30][35][37][38] The large,starch-rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil.[35] In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools.[29] In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting is fully replaced by machines.[26]
Lotusvarieties have been classified according to their use into three types:rhizome lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature.[36] Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with 200,000 ha (490,000 acres), followed by seed lotus with 20,000 ha (49,000 acres).[39]
Rhizome lotus cultivars produce a higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers.[39][36]
Cultivars can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types:
Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.[39]
Adlittoral, deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good forfrying purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than 40 cm (16 in) deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes arestarch-rich.[39]
The main popularNelumbo nucifera cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September.[39] In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market inGuangdong andJapan, the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.[36]
The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number ofcarpels and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes.[36] The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between 1,020 and 1,800 g (36 and 63 oz).[39] Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia.[36]
Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively forornamental purpose, producing many flowers and the lowest plant height.[39]
The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in the number ofpetals (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights.[36]
The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such asMorrison Polkinghorne to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.[40]
One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars ofN. nucifera sized between 5 and 8 centimetres (2.0 and 3.1 in). Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers ofpetals, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with therhizome, theirseeds are often too small or too hard to be edible.[41]
The sacred lotus may be crossed with theyellow lotus to produceinterspecific hybrids. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.[42]
About 70% of lotus for human consumption is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at 300,000 hectares (740,000 acres).[29] A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields likerice.[39]
The most widely used system iscrop rotation with rice andvegetables. This system is applicable if thepropagule (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in the same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays eitherfree orterricolous vegetables, such ascabbage orspinach, are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after theharvest of the lotus.[39]
Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotusrhizome, even though it is already ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between the rhizomes into thedrained field. The rhizomes are then harvested next March.[39]
A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such asfish,shrimp, orcrab in the same field.[39] A more efficient use of the water for both, theaquatic animals and lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern.[43]
Lotus flowers are widely used as offerings to most female deities, especiallyLakshmi, in Hindu temples. Among male deities, lotuses are offered toVishnu for prosperity and toShiva for salvation. Garlands made of lotuses are used for adorning deities and lotus petals are used inpuja. Lotus seeds are also used in prayer beads. Lotuses are also offered tothe Buddha in most Buddhist temples. Lotus is also widely used inVaramala (hindu wedding garland).
The lotus is the national flower of theRepublic of India. TheBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) uses lotus as its party symbol. The BJP, in the past, have used lotuses in multiple colors - pink, white, blue, red and saffron, in their party flag. In recent times, as a part of branding strategy and to make it easier for voters, BJP started using lotus logo in black-and-white in most settings asElectronic Voting Machines (EVM) in India only allow black-and-white logos.
Albeit unofficially, the lotus is also widely recognized as a national flower and a significant component representing theVietnamese culture and national identity. The lotus and its stylized symbolism have been used by almost every modern Vietnamese governments and regimes including both thecommunist and non-communist ones. There are advocates for the contemporaryGovernment of Vietnam to formally designate lotus as the national flower, citingstraw polls indicating very high approval from the Vietnamese citizens.[44]
Lotus effect onnelumbo nucifera hybridLotusrhizomesBoiled, sliced lotus roots used in various Asian cuisines
Therhizomes of lotus (Chinese:蓮藕;pinyin:lián-ǒu,Japanese:蓮根,romanized: renkon,Korean:연근 or 蓮根,romanized: yeongun,Hindi:कमल ककड़ी,romanized: kamala kakaṛī,Sindhi Beeh,Telugu:అల్లిదుంప,romanized: alli'dumpa)[45] are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan (Sindh), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup orpickled in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic).[46][47] Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits.[46] Salads withprawns,sesame oil orcoriander leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fastbrowning rate.[48][49]Lotus root tea is consumed in Korea.
Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked incoconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known askamala kakaṛī inHindi) is cooked as a dry curry orSabzî.[50]
Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.[51]
Rhizomes contain high amounts ofstarch (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.[52] The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as anadjuvant in thepreparation of tablets.[53] When dried,N. nucifera rhizomes can also be made intoflour, another popular use of this vegetable.[46][47]
Fresh lotus seeds (simplified Chinese:莲子;traditional Chinese:蓮子;pinyin:liánzǐ;Cantonese Yale:lìhnjí) are nutritious but also vulnerable tomicrobial contamination, especially fungal infections. Therefore, mostly dry lotus seed-based products are found on the market. Traditional sun baking combined with charcoal processing dries the seeds but results in a loss of nutrients.Freeze-dried lotus seeds have a longershelf life and maintain original nutrients, while no differences in flavour are found after rehydration compared to fresh lotus seeds.[54][55]
Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture andmold infestation; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such asradiation processing.[56]
Lotus seeds can be processed into fillings formoon cake, lotus seed noodles and food in the forms ofpaste, fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (phool makhana), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds.[57][5]Lotus seed tea is consumed in Korea, andlotus embryo tea is consumed in China and Vietnam.[5]
Young lotusstems are used as a salad ingredient inVietnamese cuisine and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such askeang som sai bua (Thai:แกงส้มสายบัว, lotus stem sour soup) andkeang kati sai bua (แกงกะทิสายบัว, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).
Innorthern andeastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup,kamala gaṭṭē kī sabzī (Hindi:कमल गट्टे की सब्ज़ी) and an appetizer,kamala kakaṛī pakauṛē (Hindi:कमल ककड़ी पकौड़े). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. InKerala (Malayalam:താമര) andTamil Nadu, this end product is calledthamara vathal.
In thePhilippines, an indigenous variety calledtukal is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season.
Vietnamese-style green young rice (cốm) wrapped in lotus leaves, traditionally consumed with ripe bananas and tea during autumn at the beginning of the rice harvest
In China and Korea,lotus leaf tea (Korean:연잎차,romanized: yeon'ip-cha) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steamingrice andsticky rice and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such aslo mai gai in Chinese cuisine orkao hor bai bua (Thai:ข้าวห่อใบบัว), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine.
Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice,cốm, which is eaten inautumn. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice.
The petals, leaves, andrhizome can also all be eaten raw, but there is a risk of parasite transmission (e.g.,Fasciolopsis buski): it is therefore recommended that they be cooked before eating.
Nelumbo nucifera shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds[58] and heavy metals.[59][60][61] It is able to grow in variable water conditions[62] and in low light intensity.[58] Various studies show the successful use ofN. nucifera to counteract watereutrophication.[58][63] The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppressesalgae growth inN. nucifera aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.[58] Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems.N. nucifera is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such aswater hyacinth). It also assimilates nitrogen ("denitrification") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.[58] Throughrhizofiltration, heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.[59][60] The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-dayincubation period.[60] The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;[61] however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.
Currently, most rhizomes are consumed fresh, and it is not common to store them due to their poorshelf life performance.[39]{ This limits export possibilities for low-income production countries in Asia. Rhizomes quickly lose water, oxidation occurs and nutrient composition changes within a short time after harvest. Optimal storage temperatures range between 5 and 8 °C (41 and 46 °F).[39] There are three different approaches to storing rhizomes. By stacking the rhizomes, they are storable and remain fresh for about three weeks. Special stacking with silver sand[clarification needed] and soil results in five to six layers that prevent water loss, thus, the rhizome stays fresh for up to two months.[39] However, the method is not suitable for commercialization but rather for home use. Hydrogen sulfidefumigation reduces enzymatic browning and therefore ensures rhizome quality.[60] Dipping the rhizomes in a salt solution prevents oxidation and bacterial reproduction, which allows storage for up to five months and greater export ability. This treatment is related to the high cost and inefficient cleaning process before eating the rhizomes.[clarification needed][39]
Nelumbo nucifera contains some thermal-stable proteins that might be useful in proteinbioengineering processes. The proteins are characterized by seed longevity used for cell protection and repair under stress.[64] There are also several indications that compounds ofN. nucifera are used in drug fabrication in human health research for multiple purposes.[65] Lotus leaves possesshydrophobic characteristics, attributed to a waxy coat that prevents water from adhering to the surface. This attribute has influenced the conception of the "lotus effect" inbiomimicry and engineering, guiding the design of materials that resist water and remain self-cleaning. Researchers at theNational University of Singapore have utilized the water-repelling structure as inspiration for developing eAir, an aero-elastic sensor capable of detecting subtle pressure changes or other environmental stimuli.[66]
Lotus thread is used to weave a special robe for the Buddha atInle Lake, Myanmar.
The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts ofwatering cans, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for driedflower arranging.
In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper forzongzi). Lotus leaves are also used to serve food in variouscultures.[67]
A unique fabric calledlotus silk, from the lotus plant fibers, is produced only atInle Lake, Myanmar, and inSiem Reap, Cambodia.[68] This thread is used for weaving special robes forBuddha images calledkya thingan (lotus robe).
Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologicallyactive substances.[77] Especially in China,lotus seeds are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as theHan Dynasty, lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".[78] Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly inJianning (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") andGuangchang ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").[79]
These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance[77][5] It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed asfunctional food.[75][5] Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use ofN. nucifera as both "food andmedicine."[80]
The rhizomes are 60–14 cm (23.6–5.5 in) long, 0.5–2.5 cm (0.20–0.98 in) in diameter, yellowish white to yellowish brown, smooth, and withnodes andinternodes.[81]
Lotus root is a moderate-calorie root vegetable (100 g of root stem provides about 74 calories) and is composed of severalvitamins,minerals, andnutrients: 83.80% water, 0.11% fat, 1.56% reducing sugar, 0.41% sucrose, 2.70% crude protein, 9.25% starch, 0.80% fiber, 0.10% ash and 0.06% calcium.[82] 100 g of root provides 44 mg ofvitamin C or 73% ofdaily recommended values (RDA).
Lotus seeds are mostly oval or spherical, with sizes varying according to varieties. They are generally 1.2–1.8 cm long, with diameters ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 cm and a weight of 1.1–1.4 g. After lotus seeds have been decorticated and peeled, they are edible and rich in nutrients and can be dried for storage. Their nutritional values can differ due to culture environments and varieties.[88]
After lotusseed germination, crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.[94][5]
Lotus field
Fruit; the dried seed cup is commonly used in flower arrangements.
Nelumbo nucifera is a lotus species with historical, cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,[95] representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. Lotus is closely associated with GoddessLakshmi and her consortVishnu. In Hindu iconography, Lakshmi is shown either in seated posture or as standing on top of a lotus flower and holding lotuses in two of her four hands. Vishnu is always portrayed with a lotus in one of his hands. Lotus orPadma exemplifies the path of one who leads adharmic life. One can stay in the darkness, trapped in the comfort of the decaying leaves and murky water or struggle to lead a dharmic life upholding righteousness, following the light and eventually liberate oneself of his/her past thereby leading a prosperous peaceful happy life. Lotus also signifiesmoksha. The roots of lotus plant intertwined in mud representing the cycle of life and death and the lotus flower symbolizing the serene blissful state of moksha. Lotus is also used to depict the awakening ofKundalini energy in thetantric system ofHinduism.[citation needed]
In Hindu literature, lotus petals are used as a simile to adore beautiful eyes of gods and goddesses. For instance, the word Kamalanayana (lotus-eyed) refers toVishnu and it extols his beautiful eyes and praise him for being the one who holds the gaze/adoration ofKamala (Lakshmi).
Lotus has also inspired Indian/Bharatiya architecture and can be seen in domes resembling lotus buds, pillars resembling lotus stalk, arches resembling inverted lotus and other lotus engravings in Hindu/Buddhist temples.
TheNelumbo nucifera, which is also called (Nilufar Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue ofAnahita in thePersepolis. The lotus flower was included inKaveh the blacksmith'sDerafsh and later as the flag of the Sasanian EmpireDerafsh Kaviani. Today, it is the symbol of IraniansSolar Hijri calendar.
The lotus flower is also mentioned in the Bible.[101] The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance inIsmaili Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.[102]
In Chinese culture, the lotus is known as “Lianhua” (蓮花). The Chinese characters “蓮” (蓮) and “花” (花) represent the leaves and flowers of the plant respectively. The lotus holds important cultural significance in Chinese Buddhism, symbolizing purity, enlightenment, and the unfolding of the spiritual self.[103]
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