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TheTen Lost Tribes were those from theTwelve Tribes of Israel that were said to have been exiled from theKingdom of Israel after it was conquered by theNeo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE.[1][2] They were the following:Reuben,Simeon,Dan,Naphtali,Gad,Asher,Issachar,Zebulun,Manasseh, andEphraim – all butJudah andBenjamin, both of which were based in the neighbouringKingdom of Judah, and therefore survived until theBabylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Alongside Judah and Benjamin was part of theTribe of Levi, which was not allowed land tenure, but receiveddedicated cities. The exile of Israel's population, known as theAssyrian captivity, was an instance of the long-standingresettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire implemented in many subjugated territories.
The Jewish historianJosephus wrote that "there are but two tribes in Asia and Europe subject to theRomans, while the ten tribes are beyondEuphrates till now, and are an immense multitude, and not to be estimated by numbers."[3] In the 7th and 8th centuries CE, the return of the Ten Lost Tribes was associated with the concept of the coming of theHebrew Messiah.[4]: 58–62 Claims of descent from the "lost tribes" have been proposed in relation to many groups,[5] and someAbrahamic religions espouse a messianic view that Israel's tribes will return.
According to contemporary research,Transjordan andGalilee did witness large-scale deportations, and entire tribes were lost. Historians have generally concluded that the deported tribes assimilated into their new local populations. InSamaria, on the other hand, manyIsraelites survived the Assyrian onslaught and remained in the land, eventually coming to be known as theSamaritan people.[6][7] However, this has not stopped various religions from asserting that some survived as distinct entities. Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, a professor ofMiddle Eastern history atNew York University, states: "The fascination with the tribes has generated, alongside ostensibly nonfictional scholarly studies, a massive body of fictional literature and folktale."[4]: 11 AnthropologistShalva Weil has documented various differing tribes and peoples claiming affiliation to the Ten Lost Tribes throughout the world.[8]
The scriptural basis for the idea of lost tribes is2 Kings 17:6: "In the ninth year ofHoshea, the king of Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away unto Assyria, and placed them in Halah, and in Habor, on the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes."
According to the Bible, theKingdom of Israel andKingdom of Judah were the successor states to the olderUnited Monarchy of Israel. The Kingdom of Israel came into existence c. 930 BCE after the northerntribes of Israel rejected Solomon's sonRehoboam as their king. Ten tribes formed the Kingdom of Israel: the tribes ofReuben,Issachar,Zebulun,Dan,Naphtali,Gad,Asher,Ephraim,Simeon andManasseh. However it is not clear how Simeon, whose territory was within the Judean territory, could ever have been a part of the northern kingdom. Also the territory of Asher was basically Phoenician and Reuben was mostly overlapping with Moabite territory.
The tribes ofJudah andBenjamin remained loyal to Rehoboam, and formed the Kingdom of Judah. In addition, members of theTribe of Levi were located in cities in both kingdoms. According to2 Chronicles 15:9, members of the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh, andSimeon fled to Judah during the reign ofAsa of Judah (c. 911–870 BCE).
In c. 732 BCE, theAssyrian kingTiglath-Pileser III sackedDamascus and Israel, annexingAramea[9] andterritory of the tribes of Reuben, Gad and Manasseh inGilead including the desert outposts ofJetur,Naphish, andNodab. People from these tribes were taken captive and resettled in the region surrounding theKhabur River. Tiglath-Pilesar also captured the territory of Naphtali and the city ofJanoah inEphraim, and an Assyrian governor was placed over the region ofNaphtali. According to2 Kings 16:9 and15:29, the population of Aram and the annexed part of Israel was deported to Assyria.
Israel Finkelstein estimated that only a fifth of the population (about 40,000) were actually resettled out of the area during the two deportation periods underTiglath-Pileser III,Shalmaneser V, andSargon II.[10][page needed] Many also fled south to Jerusalem, which appears to have expanded in size fivefold during this period, requiring a new wall to be built, and a new source of water (Siloam) to be provided by KingHezekiah.[11] Furthermore,2 Chronicles 30:1–11 explicitly mentions northern Israelites who had been spared by the Assyrians—in particular, members of Dan, Ephraim, Manasseh, Asher, and Zebulun—and how members of the latter three returned to worship at the Temple in Jerusalem at that time.
According to historian Zvi Ben-Dor Benite:
Centuries after their disappearance, the ten lost tribes sent an indirect but vital sign ... In2 Esdras, we read about the ten tribes and "their long journey through that region, which is called Arzareth" ... The book of the "Vision of Ezra", or Esdras, was written inHebrew orAramaic by a Jew in Israel sometime before the end of the first century CE, shortly after thedestruction of the temple by the Romans [in 70 CE]. It is one of a group of texts later designated as the so-calledApocrypha—pseudoepigraphal books – attached to but not included in the Hebrew biblical canon.[4]: 57
InSecond [also called Fourth] Esdras, 13:39–47:[12]
39And as for your seeing him [a man seen in a vision] gather to himself another multitude that was peaceable,40these are the ten tribes which were led away from their own land into captivity in the days of King Hoshea, whom Shalmaneser, the king of the Assyrians, led captive; he took them across the river, and they were taken to another land.41But they formed this plan for themselves, that they would leave the multitude of the nations and go to a more distant region, where mankind had never lived,42that there at least they might keep their statutes which they had not kept in their own land.43And they went in by the narrow passages of the Euphrates river.44For at that time the Most High performed signs for them, and stopped the channels of the river until they had passed over.45Through that region there was a long way to go, a journey of a year and a half; and that country is calledArzareth.[13]46Then they dwelt there until the last times; and now, when they are about to come again,47the Most High will stop the channels of the river again, so that they may be able to pass over.
InSecond Baruch, also called the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, 77:17–78:4:[14]
77:17But, as you asked me, I will write a letter to your brothers in Babylon, and I will send it by the hands of men; and I will write also a similar letter to the nine and a half tribes, and send it by means of a bird.18And on the twenty-first day of the eighth month, I, Baruch, came and sat down under the oak in the shade of its branches, and no one was with me – I was alone.19And I wrote two letters: one I sent by eagle to the nine and a half tribes; and the other I sent to those that were in Babylon by the hands of three men.20And I called the eagle and said to it,21"The Most High created you to be the king of all the birds.22Go now: stop nowhere on your journey: neither look for any roosting place, not settle on any tree, till you have crossed the broad waters of the river Euphrates, ands come to the people who dwell there, and laid this letter at their feet." [....]78:1This is the letter that Baruch, the son of Neriah, sent to the nine and a half tribes, which were across the river Euphrates, in which these things were written.2"Baruch, the son of Neriah, to his brothers in captivity, Mercy and peace to you.3I can never forget, my brothers, the love of him who created us, who loved us from the beginning and never hated us, but rather subjected us to discipline.4Nor can I forget that all we of the twelve tribes are united by a common bond, inasmuch as we are descended from a single father. [....]"
The story ofAnna on the occasion of thePresentation of Jesus at the Temple in the New Testament names her as being of the (lost) tribe of Asher (Luke 2:36).
TheTalmud debates whether or not the ten lost tribes will eventually be reunited with theTribe of Judah; that is, with the Jewish people:[15]
The ten tribes will not eventually return, as is said: "He sent them to another land as it is this day" (Deuteronomy 29:27), just as the day departs and does not return, similarly they depart and do not return – according toRabbi Akiva. RabbiEliezer says: "as it is this day" – just as this day grows dark and then bright again, so too the ten tribes who have been darkened will eventually be brightened [i.e. they will return]. ... Rabbi Shimon ben Yehuda of the village of Akko says in the name of Rabbi Shimon: If their deeds remain "as this day" [i.e. they continue to sin], they will not return; otherwise they shall return.[16]
AnAshkenaziJewish legend speaks of these tribes asDie Roite Yiddelech, "the littlered Jews", who were cut off from the rest of Jewry by the legendary riverSambation, "whose foaming waters raise high up into the sky a wall of fire and smoke that is impossible to pass through."[17]
To varying degrees,Apocryphal accounts concerning the Lost Tribes, based on biblical accounts, have been produced by Jews and Christians since at least the 17th century.[4]: 59 An increased currency of tales relating to lost tribes that occurred in the 17th century was due to the confluence of several factors. According toTudor Parfitt:
As Michael Pollack shows, Menasseh's argument was based on "three separate and seemingly unrelated sources: a verse from the book of Isaiah,Matteo Ricci's discovery of an old Jewish community in the heart of China and Antonio Montezinos' reported encounter with members of the Lost Tribes in the wilds of South America".[18]: 69
In 1649,Menasseh ben Israel published his book,The Hope of Israel, in Spanish and Latin in Amsterdam; it includedAntonio de Montezinos' account of the Lost Tribes in the New World.[19][20] An English translation was published in London in 1650. In it, Menasseh argued that thenative inhabitants of America which were encountered at the time of the European discovery were actually the descendants of the [lost] Ten Tribes of Israel and for the first time, he tried to gain support for the theory from European thinkers and publishers.[19] Menasseh noted how important Montezinos' account was,
for the Scriptures do not tell what people first inhabited those Countries; neither was there mention of them by any, tilChristop. Columbus,Americus, Vespacius [sic],Ferdinandus, Cortez [sic], theMarquesse Del Valle [sic], andFranciscus Pizarrus [sic] went thither ...[21]
He wrote on 23 December 1649: "I think that the Ten Tribes live not only there ... but also in other lands scattered everywhere; these never did come back to theSecond Temple and they keep till this day still the Jewish Religion ..."[22]: 118
According to theBook of Mormon, two families ofNephites escaped from Israel circa 600 BC shortly before thesacking of Jerusalem byNebuchadnezzar, constructed a ship, sailed across the ocean, and arrived in theAmericas in thePre-Columbian era. These Nephites are among the ancestors of Native American tribes and possibly also thePolynesians.[23] Adherents believe the two founding tribes were called Nephites andLamanites, that the Nephites obeyed theLaw of Moses, practiced Christianity, and that the Lamanites were rebellious. The Book of Mormon claims that the Nephites and Lamanites were who Jesus Christ was referring to when he taught, "And other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring, and they shall hear my voice; and there shall be one fold, and one shepherd."[24] Eventually the Lamanites wiped out the Nephites around 400 CE, and they are among the ancestors of Native Americans. The Book of Mormon claims that other groups of Israelites, besides the Nephites, were led away by God from the time of the Exodus through the reign of King Zedekiah, and that Jesus Christ also visited them after His resurrection.[25] Latter-Day Saints believe the ancient accounts ofQuetzalcoatl andShangdi, among others, support this doctrine.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believes in theliteral gathering of Israel, and as of 2006 the Church actively preached the gathering of people from the twelve tribes.[26] "Today Israelites are found in all countries of the world. Many of these people do not know that they are descended from the ancient house of Israel," the church teaches in its basicGospel Principles manual. "The Lord promised that His covenant people would someday be gathered ... God gathers His children through missionary work. As people come to a knowledge of Jesus Christ, receiving the ordinances of salvation and keeping the associated covenants, they become 'the children of the covenant' (3 Nephi 20:26)."
The church also teaches that
The power and authority to direct the work of gathering the house of Israel was given toJoseph Smith by the prophet Moses, who appeared in 1836 in the Kirtland Temple. ... The Israelites are to be gathered spiritually first and then physically. They are gathered spiritually as they join The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and make and keep sacred covenants. ... The physical gathering of Israel means that the covenant people will be 'gathered home to the lands of their inheritance, and shall be established in all their lands of promise' (2 Nephi 9:2). The tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh will be gathered in the Americas. The tribe of Judah will return to the city of Jerusalem and the area surrounding it. The ten lost tribes will receive from the tribe of Ephraim their promised blessings (see D&C 133:26–34). ... The physical gathering of Israel will not be complete until the Second Coming of the Savior and on into the Millennium (see Joseph Smith—Matthew 1:37).[27]
One of their mainArticles of Faith, which was written by Joseph Smith, is as follows: "We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion (the New Jerusalem) will be built upon the American continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth; and, that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisiacal glory." (LDS Articles of Faith #10)
Regarding theEzekiel 37 prophecy, the church teaches that theBook of Mormon is the stick of Ephraim (or Joseph) mentioned and that the Bible is the stick of Judah, thus comprising two witnesses for Jesus Christ. The church believes theBook of Mormon to be a collection of records by prophets of the ancient Americas, written on plates of gold and translated by Joseph Smith c. 1830. The church considers theBook of Mormon one of the main tools for the spiritual gathering of Israel.
Some scholars suggest that while deportations took place both before and after the destruction of Israel (722–720 BCE), they were less significant than a cursory reading of the Bible's account of them indicates. During the earlier Assyrian invasions, theTransjordan and theGalilee did witness large-scale deportations, and entire tribes were lost; the tribes ofReuben,Gad,Dan, andNaphtali are never mentioned again. The region ofSamaria, on the other hand, was larger and more populous. Two of the region's largest cities,Samaria andMegiddo, were mostly left intact, and the rural communities were generally left alone. Additionally, according to theBook of Chronicles, KingHezekiah of Judah invited the survivors ofEphraim,Zebulun,Asher,Issachar andManasseh to Jerusalem to celebrate Passover. Therefore, it is assumed that the majority of people who survived the Assyrian invasions remained in the area.[6] According to researchers, theSamaritan community of today, which claims to be descended from Ephraim, Manasseh,Levi, and, up until 1968, alsoBenjamin, does in fact predominantly derive from the tribes that continued to live in the region.[6] It has been proposed that some Israelites joined the southern tribes in theKingdom of Judah;[28] however, this theory is debated.[29] The Israelites who were deported are thought to have assimilated with the local populace.[30]
For instance, theNew Standard Jewish Encyclopedia states: "In historic fact, some members of the Ten Tribes remained in the land of Israel, where apart from the Samaritans some of their descendants long preserved their identity among the Jewish population, others were assimilated, while others were presumably absorbed by the last Judean exiles who in 597–586 BCE were deported to Assyria ... Unlike the Judeans of the southern Kingdom, who survived a similar fate 135 years later, they soon assimilated".[30]
The enduring mysteries which surround the disappearance of the tribes later became sources of numerous (largely mythological) narratives in recent centuries, with historianTudor Parfitt arguing that "this myth is a vital feature of colonial discourse throughout the long period of European overseas empires, from the beginning of the fifteenth century, until the later half of the twentieth".[18]: 1, 225 Along withPrester John,[31][32] they formed an imaginary guide for exploration andcontact withuncontacted andindigenous peoples in theAge of Discovery andcolonialism.[33]
However, during his other research projects, Parfitt discovered the possible existence of some ethnic links between several olderJewish Diaspora communities inAsia,Africa and the Middle East, especially in those Jewish communities which were established in pre-colonial times. For example, in hisY-DNA studies of males from theLemba people ofSouthern Africa, Parfitt found a high proportion of paternal Semitic ancestry, DNA that is common to bothArabs and Jews from the Middle East.[34]
During his later genetic studies of theBene Israel ofIndia, the origins of whom were obscure, he also concluded that they were predominantly descended from males from the Middle East, a conclusion which was largely consistent with theiroral histories of their origin.[35] These findings subsequently led otherJudaising groups, including theGogodala tribe ofPapua New Guinea, to seek help in determining their own origins.[36]
Expanded exploration and study of groups throughout the world througharchaeology and the new field ofanthropology in the late 19th century led to a revival or a reworking of accounts of the Lost Tribes.[37] For instance, because the construction of theMississippian culture's complex earthwork mounds seemed to be beyond the skills of theNative American cultures whichEuropean Americans knew about when they discovered them, it was theorized that the ancient civilizations which were involved in the construction of the mounds were linked to the Lost Tribes. The discoverers of the mounds tried to fit the new information which they acquired as the result of their archaeological findings into a biblical construct.[38] However, the earthworks acrossNorth America have been conclusively linked to various Native groups, and today, archaeologists consider the theory of non-Native originpseudo-scientific.[39][page needed]
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Samaritans consider themselves to be descended from tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh who stayed in their land and kept their religion. The Jewish belief is that Samaritans are descended from foreigners who replaced the exiled northern tribes and took on the customs of natives.[40]
Many travelers and researchers have reported that the traditional folklore of Kurdish Jews claims they are descended from the Ten Lost Tribes.[41][42] According to the memoirs ofBenjamin of Tudela andPethahiah of Regensburg, there were about 100 Jewish settlements and substantial Jewish population inKurdistan in the 12th century. Benjamin of Tudela also gives the account ofDavid Alroi, themessianic leader from central Kurdistan, who rebelled against theSeljukSultanMuktafi and had plans to lead theJews back toJerusalem.[43]
Among thePashtuns, there is a tradition of being descended from the exiled lost tribes of Israel.[44] This tradition was referenced in 19th century western scholarship and it was also incorporated in the "Lost Tribes" literature which was popular at that time (notablyGeorge Moore'sThe Lost Tribes of 1861).Recently (2000s), interest in the topic has been revived by the Jerusalem-based anthropologistShalva Weil, who was quoted in the popular press as stating that the "Taliban may be descended from Jews".[45]
The traditions surrounding the Pashtuns being the remote descendants of the "Lost Tribes of Israel" are to be distinguished from the historical existence of theJewish community in eastern Afghanistan or northwest Pakistan which flourished from about the 7th century to the early 20th century, but has essentially disappeared from the region due to emigration to Israel since the 1950s.[citation needed]
According to theEncyclopaedia of Islam, the theory of Pashtun descent fromIsraelites can be traced toMakhzan-e-Afghani, a history book which was compiled forKhan-e-Jehan Lodhi in the reign of theMughal EmperorJehangir in the 17th century.
ThePashtuns are a predominantlySunni MuslimIranic people, native to southernAfghanistan and northwesternPakistan, who adhere to an indigenous and pre-Islamic religious code of honor and culture,Pashtunwali. The belief that the Pashtuns are descended from the lost tribes of Israel has never been substantiated by concrete historical evidence.[46][47] Many members of theTaliban hail from the Pashtun tribes and they do not necessarily disclaim their alleged Israelite descent.[48][49]
InPashto, the tribal name 'Yusef Zai' means the "sons of Joseph".[49]
A number ofgenetic studies on Jews refute the possibility of a connection, whereas others maintain a link.[50]: 117 In 2010,The Guardian reported that the Israeli government was planning to fund a genetic study to test the veracity of a genetic link between the Pashtuns and the lost tribes of Israel.[needs update] The article stated that "Historical and anecdotal evidence strongly suggests a connection, but definitive scientific proof has never been found. Some leading Israeli anthropologists believe that, of all the many groups in the world which claim to have a connection to the 10 lost tribes, the Pashtuns, or Pathans, have the most compelling case."[51]
Some traditions of theAssyrian Jews[52][53][54][55] claim that Israelites of the tribe of Benjamin first arrived in the area of modernKurdistan after theNeo-Assyrian Empire's conquest of theKingdom of Israel during the 8th century BCE; they were subsequently relocated to the Assyrian capital.[56] During the first century BCE, the Assyrian royal house ofAdiabene—which, according to the Jewish historianFlavius Josephus, was ethnicallyAssyrian and whose capital wasErbil (Aramaic:Arbala;Kurdish:Hewlêr)—was converted to Judaism.[57][58] King Monobazes, his queen Helena, and his son and successor Izates are recorded as the firstproselytes.[59]
TheBene Israel are a community of Jews in the Indian state of Maharashtra, residing particularly in theKonkan region. Since the formation of the State of Israel, thousands of Bene Israelis have madealiyah, although large numbers still remain in India.
Since the late 20th century, some tribes in the Indian North-Eastern states ofMizoram andManipur have been claiming that they areLost Israelites and they have also been studyingHebrew and Judaism.[60][61] In 2005, the chief rabbi of Israel ruled that the Bnei Menashe are descended from a lost tribe. Based on the ruling, Bnei Menashe are allowed toimmigrate to Israel after they formally convert to Judaism.[62] In 2021, 4,500 Bnei Menashe had made aliyah to Israel; 6,000 Bnei Menashe in India hope to make aliyah.[63][full citation needed]
According toAl-Biruni, the famous 11th-century Persian Muslim scholar: "In former times the inhabitants of Kashmir used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country, particularly Jews, but at present they do not allow any Hindus whom they do not know personally to enter, much less other people."[64]
François Bernier, a 17th-century French physician and SirFrancis Younghusband, who explored this region in the 1800s, commented on the similar physiognomy between Kashmiris and Jews,[64][65] including "fair skin, prominent noses", and similar head shapes.[66][67][68]
Baikunth Nath Sharga argues that, despite the etymological similarities between Kashmiri and Jewish surnames, the KashmiriPandits are ofIndo-Aryan descent while the Jews are ofSemitic descent.[69]
The Bene Ephraim, also called Telugu Jews, claim descent from the tribe of Ephraim. Since the 1980s, they have learned to practice modern Judaism.[70] They say that they traveled from Israel through western Asia: Persia, Afghanistan, Tibet and into China for 1,600 years before arriving in southern India more than 1,000 years ago.[71] They hold a history which they say is similar to that of the shift ofAfghan Jews,Persian Jews,Bene Israel, andBnei Menashe. Thecommunity has been visited over the years byrabbis from the chief rabbinate in Israel to study their Jewishtradition andpractices. They have sought recognition from many rabbis around the world,[72] and they always practiced their own oral traditions and customs (caviloth), such as: burying the dead; marrying under achuppah; observingShabbat and other Jewish festivals, and maintaining abeit din. However, they adopted some aspects ofChristianity after the arrival of BritishBaptistmissionaries during the early 19th century although nominally practicing Judaism. Because of the long period in which the people were not practicing Judaism, they did not develop any distinctly identifiableJudæo-Telugu language asother groups did.
TheBeta Israel ("House of Israel") are Ethiopian Jews, who were also called "Falashas" in the past.[73] Some members of the Beta Israel, as well as several Jewish scholars, believe that they are descended from the lostTribe of Dan, as opposed to the traditional account of their origins which claims that they are descended from theQueen of Sheba and theIsraelite kingSolomon.[74][75][76][48] They have a tradition of being connected toJerusalem.[77] Early DNA studies showed that they were descended fromEthiopians, but in the 21st century, new studies have shown their possible descent from a few Jews who lived in either the 4th or 5th century CE, possibly inSudan.[50][78] The Beta Israel made contact with other Jewish communities in the later 20th century. In 1973 RabbiOvadia Yosef, then the Chief Sephardic Rabbi, based on the Radbaz and other accounts, ruled that the Beta Israel were Jews and should be brought to Israel; two years later that opinion was confirmed by a number of other authorities who made similar rulings, including the ChiefAshkenaziRabbiShlomo Goren.[79]
TheIgbo Jews ofNigeria variously claim descent from the tribes ofEphraim,Naphtali,Menasseh,Levi,Zebulun andGad. The theory, however, does not hold up to historical scrutiny. Historians have examined the historical literature onWest Africa from the colonial era and they have elucidated that such theories served diverse functions for the writers who proposed them.[80][81]
TheBlack Hebrew Israelites are anAfrican Americannew religious movement which claims thatAfrican Americans are the descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes. The group believe that, following their displacement, the Ten Lost Tribes migrated to and settled inWest Africa and they were subsequently enslaved and transported to America in theTransatlantic slave trade; where their white slave masters forced them to abandon their Jewish culture and adopt Christianity. The Black Hebrew Israelites also believe thatEuropean Jews are not descended from the original Israelites, instead, Black Hebrew Israelites believe that European Jews are "impostors". For this reason, the group is frequently considered antisemitic. They are not recognized as Jews by any major Jewish organization and they are also not recognized by the modernState of Israel.
Some of theGogodala people ofPapua New Guinea claim the Gogodala are one of the lost tribes, adopting some Jewish customs to reflect this.[82]
There has been speculation regarding various ethnic groups, which would be regarded asfringe theories.
Some writers have speculated that theJapanese people may be the direct descendants of some of the Ten Lost Tribes. Parfitt writes that "the spread of the fantasy of Israelite origin ... forms a consistent feature of the Western colonial enterprise. ... It is in fact in Japan that we can trace the most remarkable evolution in the Pacific of an imagined Judaic past. As elsewhere in the world, the theory that aspects of the country were to be explained via an Israelite model was introduced by Western agents."[18]: 158
In 1878, Scottish immigrant to JapanNicholas McLeod self-publishedEpitome of the Ancient History of Japan.[83] McLeod drew correlations between his observations of Japan and the fulfillment of biblical prophecy: The civilized race of theAinus,[sic: readAinus] theTokugawa and the Machi No Hito of the large towns, by dwelling in the tent or tabernacle shaped houses first erected byJin Mu Tenno, have fulfilledNoah's prophecy regardingJapheth, "He shall dwell in the tents ofShem."[83]: 7
Jon Entine emphasizes the fact that DNA evidence shows that there are no genetic links between Japanese and Israelite people.[50]: 117
TheLemba people (Vhalemba) ofSouthern Africa claim to be the descendants of several Jewish men who traveled from what is nowYemen to Africa in search of gold, where they took wives and established new communities.[84][85] They specifically adhere to religious practices which are similar to those which exist in Judaism and they also have a tradition of being a migrant people, with clues which point to their origin in either West Asia or North Africa. According to theoral history of the Lemba, their ancestors wereJews who came from a place calledSena several hundred years ago and settled in East Africa. Sena is an abandoned ancient town in Yemen, located in the easternHadramaut valley, which history indicates was inhabited by Jews in past centuries. Some research suggests that "Sena" may refer toWadi Masilah (nearSayhut) in Yemen, often called Sena, or alternatively to the city ofSana'a, which is also located in Yemen.[86][18]: 61
DNA tests have not supported their claims of a Jewish heritage.[87]
Some early Christian missionaries to New Zealand speculated that the nativeMaori were descendants of the Lost Tribes. Some Māori later embraced this belief.[88]
In 1650, an English minister namedThomas Thorowgood, who was a preacher in Norfolk, published a book entitledJewes in America or Probabilities that the Americans are of that Race,[89] which he had prepared for the New England missionary society. Parfitt writes of this work: "The society was active in trying to convert the Indians but suspected that they might be Jews and realized that it had better be prepared for an arduous task. Thorowgood's tract argued that the native populations of North America were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes."[18]: 66
In 1652Hamon L'Estrange, an English author who wrote literary works about topics such as history and theology published an exegetical tract calledAmericans no Jews, or improbabilities that the Americans are of that Race in response to the tract by Thorowgood. In response to L'Estrange, in 1660, Thorowgood published a second edition of his book with a revised title and a foreword which was written byJohn Eliot, aPuritan missionary to the Indians who had translated the Bible into an Indian language.[18]: 66, 76
The American diplomat and journalistMordecai Manuel Noah also proposed the idea that theindigenous peoples of the Americas are descended from the Israelites in his publicationThe American Indians Being the Descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel (1837).[90]
That some or all American Indians are part of the lost tribes is suggested by theBook of Mormon (1830) and it is also a popular belief amongLatter-day Saints.[91]
The Swedish historian of the 18th centuryOlof von Dalin suggested that the Scythian tribeNeuri mentioned by Greek authors were descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel; at the same time, he considered the Neuri to be the ancestors of the Finns, the Sami, and the Estonians.[92]
Adherents ofBritish Israelism andChristian Identity both believe that the lost tribes migrated northward, over theCaucasus, and became theScythians,Cimmerians andGoths, as well as the progenitors of the laterGermanic invaders of Britain.[93][94]: 26–27
The theory first arose in England and then it spread to the United States.[18]: 52–65 During the 20th century, British Israelism was promoted byHerbert W. Armstrong, founder of theWorldwide Church of God.[18]: 57
Tudor Parfitt, author ofThe Lost Tribes: The History of a Myth, states that the proof which is cited by adherents of British Israelism is "of a feeble composition even by the low standards of the genre",[18]: 61 and these notions are widely rejected by historians.[95]
In 1929Yiddish-writing authorLazar Borodulin published one of the very few Yiddishscience fiction novels,אויף יענער זייט סמבטיון : וויסענשאפטליכער און פאנטאסטישער ראמאן (Oyf yener zayt sambatyun, visnshaftlekher un fantastisher roman, in English:On the other side of theSambation, a scientific and fantastic novel), a novel in the "lost world" genre, written in a Jewish perspective.[96] In the novel a journalist meets amad scientist with aray gun in the land of theRed Jews.[97]
In a 1934 adventure novel by Ben Aronin,The Lost Tribe. Being the Strange Adventures of Raphael Drale in Search of the Lost Tribes of Israel, a teenager, Raphael, finds the losttribe of Dan beyond theArctic Circle.[97]
What one finds in the Samarian hills is not the wholesale replacement of one local population by a foreign population, but rather the diminution of the local population. Widespread abandonment does not occur as in parts of Galilee and Gilead, but significant depopulation does occur. Among the causes of such a decline one may list death by war, disease, and starvation; forced deportations to other lands; and migrations to other areas, including south to Judah. [...] This brings us back to the question with which we began: What happened to the 'ten lost tribes'? A significant portion of the 'ten lost tribes' was never lost. In the region of Samaria, most of the indigenous Israelite population—those who survived the Assyrian onslaughts—remained in the land.
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