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On the Sublime (Ancient Greek:Περì ὝψουςPerì Hýpsous;Latin:De sublimitate) is aRoman-era Greek work ofliterary criticism dated to the 1st century CE. Its author is unknown but is conventionally referred to asLonginus (/lɒnˈdʒaɪnəs/;Ancient Greek:ΛογγῖνοςLongînos) orPseudo-Longinus. It is regarded as a classic work onaesthetics and the effects of good writing. The treatise highlights examples of good and bad writing from the previous millennium, focusing particularly on what may lead to thesublime.
The author is unknown. In a 10th-century reference manuscript (Parisinus Graecus 2036), the heading (f. 178v) reports "by Dionysius Longinus" (Διονυσίου Λογγίνου), whereas in the table of contents at f. 1v, the samecopyist wrote "by Dionysius or Longinus" (Διονυσίου ἢ Λογγίνου). When the manuscript was being prepared for printed publication, the work was initially attributed toCassius Longinus (c. 213–273 CE). Since the correct translation includes the possibility of an author named "Dionysius", some have attributed the work toDionysius of Halicarnassus orDionysius Atticus, both writers of the 1st century BCE.[1][2] There remains the possibility that the work belongs to neither Cassius Longinus nor either Dionysius but, rather, some unknown author writing under theRoman Empire, likely in the 1st century. The error does imply that when thecodex was written, the trails of the real author were already lost. Neither author can be accepted as the actual writer of the treatise. Dionysius maintained ideas which are absolutely opposite to those written in the treatise; with Longinus, there are problems with chronology.
Among further names proposed, areHermagoras of Temnos (a rhetorician who lived in Rome during the 1st century CE),Aelius Theon (author of a work which had many ideas in common with those ofOn the Sublime), and Pompeius Geminus (who was in epistolary conversation with Dionysius).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote under Augustus, publishing a number of works. Dionysius is generally dismissed as the potential author ofOn the Sublime, since the writing officially attributed to Dionysius differs from the workOn the Sublime in style and thought.[3]
Credited with writing a number of literary works, Longinus was a disciple ofPlotinus, and considered "the most distinguished scholar of his day." He received his education at Alexandria and then went to Athens to teach. He later moved to Asia Minor, where he achieved the position of advisor toZenobia, the queen ofPalmyra.[4][3][5] Cassius is a dubious possibility for author of the treatise because he wrote in the 3rd century, and no literature later than the 1st century CE is mentioned. The latest isCicero, who died in 43 BCE[clarification needed] and their work is now dated to the early 1st century CE. The work ends with a dissertation on the decay of oratory, a typical subject for the time when authors such asTacitus,Petronius andQuintilian, who also dealt with the subject, were alive. Cassius was executed by Aurelian, the Roman emperor who conquered Palmyra in 273 CE, on charges of conspiring against the Roman state. This was most likely because of what he had written for Queen Zenobia of Palmyra while she was still in power. Longinus is reported to have written answers for the Queen, which were used in response to Aurelian, the man who would soon rise to power as the Roman emperor.[4]
According toByzantinist Carlo Maria Mazzucchi, editor of the text, "Dionysius Longinus" is the true name of the author. He argued that the combination of thenomen "Dionysius" and thecognomen "Longinus" is acceptable on the basis of several ancient sources, and that the perplexities shown by the manuscript's copyist are due to the fact that no other rhetor is known under the name of "Dionysius Longinus"; thus the copyist compiled the manuscript index adding the disjunctive ἤ ("or"), thinking of well-known Ancient Greek rhetors Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cassius Longinus.[6][7]
On the Sublime is both a treatise onaesthetics and a work of literary criticism. It is written in an epistolary form and the final part, possibly dealing with public speaking, has been lost.
The treatise is dedicated to Postumius Terentianus, a cultured Roman and public figure, though little else is known of him.On the Sublime is a compendium of literary exemplars, with about 50 authors spanning 1,000 years mentioned or quoted.[8] Along with the expected examples fromHomer and other figures of Greek culture, Longinus refers to a passage fromGenesis, which is quite unusual for the 1st century:
A similar effect was achieved by the lawgiver of the Jews—no mean genius, for he both understood and gave expression to the power of the divinity as it deserved—when he wrote at the very beginning of his laws, and I quote his words: "God said,"—what was it?—"Let there be light, and there was. Let there be earth, and there was."
— On the Sublime 9.9
Given his positive reference to Genesis, Longinus has been assumed to be either a Hellenized Jew or readily familiar with the Jewish culture.[9] As such, Longinus emphasizes that, to be a truly great writer, authors must have "moral excellence".[3] In fact, critics speculate that Longinus avoided publication in the ancient world "either by modesty or by prudential motives".[8] Moreover, Longinus stresses that transgressive writers are not necessarily shameless fools, even if they take literary risks that seem "bold, lawless, and original".[3] As for social subjectivity, Longinus acknowledges that complete liberty promotes spirit and hope; according to Longinus, "never did a slave become an orator".[10] On the other hand, too much luxury and wealth leads to a decay in eloquence—eloquence being the goal of thesublime writer.[8]
Longinus critically applauds and condemns certain literary works as examples of good or bad styles of writing.[8] Longinus ultimately promotes an "elevation of style"[8] and an essence of "simplicity".[11] To quote this famous author, "the first and most important source of sublimity [is] the power of forming great conceptions."[11] The concept of thesublime is generally accepted to refer to a style of writing that elevates itself "above the ordinary". Finally, Longinus sets out five sources of sublimity: "great thoughts, strong emotions, certain figures of thought and speech, noble diction, and dignified word arrangement".[9]
The effects of the Sublime are: loss of rationality, an alienation leading to identification with the creative process of the artist and a deep emotion mixed in pleasure and exaltation. An example of sublime (which the author quotes in the work) is a poem bySappho, the so-calledOde to Jealousy, defined as a "Sublime ode". A writer's goal is not so much to express empty feelings, but to arouse emotion in her audience.[11]
In the treatise, the author asserts that "the Sublime leads the listeners not to persuasion, but to ecstasy: for what is wonderful always goes together with a sense of dismay, and prevails over what is only convincing or delightful, since persuasion, as a rule, is within everyone's grasp: whereas, the Sublime, giving to speech an invincible power and [an invincible] strength, rises above every listener".[12]
According to this statement, one could think that the sublime, for Longinus, was only a moment of evasion from reality. But on the contrary, he thought that literature could model a soul, and that a soul could pour itself out into a work of art. In this way the treatise becomes not only a text of literary inquiry, but also one of ethical dissertation, since the Sublime becomes the product of agreat soul (μεγαλοφροσύνης ἀπήχημα,megalophrosunēs apēchēma). The sources of the Sublime are of two kinds: inborn sources ("aspiration to vigorous concepts" and "strong and enthusiastic passion") and acquirable sources (rhetorical devices, choice of the right lexicon, and "dignified and high composition").[11]
The author speaks also about the decay of oratory, as arising not only from absence of political freedom but also from the corruption of morals, which together destroy that high spirit which generates the Sublime. Thus the treatise is clearly centred in the burning controversy which raged in the 1st century CE in Latin literature. IfPetronius pointed out excess of rhetoric and the pompous, unnatural techniques of the schools of eloquence as the causes of decay,Tacitus was nearer to Longinus in thinking[2] that the root of this decadence was the establishment of Princedom, or Empire, which, though it brought stability and peace, also gave rise to censorship and brought an end to freedom of speech. Thus oratory became merely an exercise in style.
Translators have been unable to clearly interpret the text, including the title itself. The "sublime" in the title has been translated in various ways, to include senses of elevation and excellent style. The wordsublime, argues Rhys Roberts, is misleading, since Longinus' objective broadly concerns "the essentials of a noble and impressive style" than anything more narrow and specific. Moreover, about one-third of the treatise is missing;[8] Longinus' segment on similes, for instance, has only a few words remaining.[3] Matters are further complicated in realizing that ancient writers, Longinus' contemporaries, do not quote or mention the treatise in any way.[8]
Despite Longinus' acclaim, not all critical reception has been positive. 18th-century criticEdward Burnaby Greene finds Longinus, at times, to be "too refined".[13] Greene also claims that Longinus' focus on hyperbolical descriptions is "particularly weak, and apparently misapplied."[2] Occasionally, Longinus also falls into a sort of "tediousness" in treating his subjects.[8] The treatise is also limited in its concentration on spiritual transcendence and lack of focus on the way in which language structures determine the feelings and thoughts of writers.[9] Finally, Longinus' treatise is difficult to explain in an academic setting, given the difficulty of the text and lack of "practical rules of a teachable kind."[3]
Despite its faults, the treatise remains critically successful because of its "noble tone," "apt precepts," "judicious attitude," and "historical interests".[8] One of the reasons why it is so unlikely that known ancient critics wroteOn the Sublime is because the treatise is composed so differently from any other literary work. Since Longinus' rhetorical formula avoids dominating his work, the literature remains "personal and fresh," unique in its originality. Longinus rebels against the popular rhetoric of the time by implicitly attacking ancient theory in its focus on a detailed criticism of words, metaphors, and figures. More explicitly, in refusing to judge tropes as entities unto themselves, Longinus promotes the appreciation of literary devices as they relate to passages as a whole.[2] Essentially, Longinus, rare for a critic of his time, focuses more on "greatness of style" than "technical rules."[8] Despite his criticism of ancient texts, Longinus remains a "master of candor and good-nature".[13] Moreover, the author invents striking images and metaphors, writing almost lyrically at times.[2] In general, Longinus appreciates, and makes use of, simple diction and bold images.[3]
As far as the language is concerned, the work is certainly a unicum because it is a blend of expressions of the HellenisticKoine Greek to which are added elevated constructions, technical expressions, metaphors, classic and rare forms which produce a literary pastiche at the borders of linguistic experimentation.
In readingOn the Sublime, critics have determined that the ancient philosopher and writer Plato is a "great hero" to Longinus.[3] Not only does Longinus come to Plato's defense, but he also attempts to raise his literary standing in opposition to current criticisms. Another influence on the treatise can be found in Longinus' rhetorical figures, which draw from theories by a 1st-century BCE writer,Caecilius of Calacte.[8]
German film directorWerner Herzog claims to have an affinity with the work of Longinus, in a talk entitled "On the Absolute, the Sublime and Ecstatic Truth", presented in Milan. Herzog says that he thinks of Longinus as a good friend and considers that Longinus's notions of illumination has a parallel in some moments in his films. He quotes from Longinus: "For our soul is raised out of nature through the truly sublime, sways with high spirits, and is filled with proud joy, as if itself had created what it hears."[citation needed]
On the Sublime public domain audiobook atLibriVox
