London Stone is a historiclandmark housed at 111 Cannon Street in theCity of London.^[1] It is an irregular block ofoolitic limestone measuring 53 × 43 × 30 cm (21 × 17 × 12"), the remnant of a once much larger object that had stood for many centuries on the south side of the street.

The name "London Stone" was first recorded around the year 1100. The date and original purpose of the stone are unknown, although it is possibly of Roman origin. There has been interest and speculation about it since the medieval period, but modern claims that it was formerly an object of veneration, or has some occult significance, are unsubstantiated.

The present London Stone is only the upper portion of a once much larger object. The surviving portion is a block ofoolitic limestone approximately 53 cm wide, 43 cm high, and 30 cm front to back (21 × 17 × 12 inches).^[2] A study in the 1960s indicated that the stone isClipsham limestone, a good-quality stone fromRutland transported to London for building purposes in both the Roman and medieval periods.^[3] More recently, Kevin Hayward has suggested that it may beBath stone, the stone most used for monuments and sculpture in early Roman London and in Saxon times.^[4]

The Stone is located on the north side ofCannon Street, oppositeCannon Street station, in an aperture in the wall of 111 Cannon Street (EC4N 5AR), within aPortland stone casing.

When London Stone was erected and what its original function was are unknown, although there has been much speculation.

The Stone was originally located on the south side of medieval Candlewick Street (afterward widened to create modern Cannon Street), opposite the west end ofSt Swithin's Church. It is shown in this position on theCopperplate map of London, dating to the 1550s,^[5] and also appears on the derivative"Woodcut" map of the 1560s. It was described by the London historianJohn Stow in hisSurvey of London (1598) as "a great stone called London stone", "pitched upright ... fixed in the ground verie deep, fastened with bars of iron".^[6]

Stow does not give the dimensions of this "great stone", but a French visitor to London in 1578 had recorded that the stone was three feet high (above ground), two feet wide, and one foot thick (90 × 60 × 30 cm).^[7] Thus, although it was a local landmark, the part of it standing above ground was not particularly large.

The earliest reference to the Stone is usually said to be that in a medieval document cited by Stow in 1598. He refers to an early list of properties in London belonging toChrist Church, Canterbury (Canterbury Cathedral), and says that one piece of land was described as lying "neare unto London stone".^[6] In Stow's account, the list had been bound into the end of aGospel Book given to the cathedral by "Ethelstane king of the west Saxons", usually identified asÆthelstan, king of England (924–939). However, it is impossible to confirm Stow's account, since the document he saw cannot now be identified with certainty. Nevertheless, the earliest extant list of Canterbury's London properties, which has been dated to between 1098 and 1108, does refer to a property given to the cathedral by a man named "Eadwaker æt lundene stane" ("Eadwaker at London Stone").^[8] Although not bound into a Gospel Book (it is now bound into a volume of miscellaneous medieval texts with a Canterbury provenance (MS Cotton Faustina B. vi) in theBritish Library), it could be that it was this, or a similar text, that Stow saw.^[9]

Like Eadwaker, other medieval Londoners acquired or adopted thebyname "at London Stone" or "of London Stone" because they lived nearby. One of these was "Ailwin of London Stone", the father ofHenry Fitz-Ailwin de Londonestone, the firstMayor of the City of London, who took office some time between 1189–1193, and governed the city until his death in 1212. The Fitz-Ailwin house stood away from Candlewick Street, on the north side of St Swithin's church.^[9]

London Stone was a well-known landmark in medieval London, and when in 1450Jack Cade, leader of a rebellion against the corrupt government ofHenry VI, entered the city with his men, he struck his sword on London Stone and claimed to be "Lord of this city".^[10] Contemporary accounts give no clue as to Cade's motivation, or how his followers or the Londoners would have interpreted his action. There is nothing to suggest he was carrying out a traditional ceremony or custom.

By the time ofQueen Elizabeth I London Stone was not merely a landmark, shown and named on maps, but a visitor attraction in its own right. Tourists may have been told variously that it had stood there since before the city existed, or that it had been set up by order ofKing Lud, legendary rebuilder of London, or that it marked the centre of the city, or that it was "set [up] for the tendering and making of payment by debtors".^[6][7][11]

It appears to have been routinely used in this period as a location for the posting and promulgation of a variety of bills, notices, and advertisements.^[12] In 1608 it was listed in a poem bySamuel Rowlands as one of the "sights" of London (perhaps the first time the word was used in that sense) shown to "an honest Country foole" on a visit to town.^[13][14]

During the 17th century the stone continued be used as an "address", to identify a locality. Thus, for example,Thomas Heywood's biography ofQueen Elizabeth I,Englands Elizabeth (1631), was, according to its title page, "printed by Iohn Beale, for Phillip Waterhouse; and are to be sold at his shop at St Pauls Head, neere London stone"; and theEnglish Short Title Catalogue lists over 30 books published between 1629 and the 1670s with similar references to London Stone in the imprint.^[15]

In 1671 theWorshipful Company of Spectacle Makers broke up a batch of substandard spectacles on London Stone:

Two and twenty dozen [= 264] of English spectacles, all very badd both in the glasse and frames not fitt to be put on sale ... were found badd and deceitful and by judgement of the Court condemned to be broken, defaced and spoyled both glasse and frame the which judgement was executed accordingly in Canning [Cannon] Street on the remayning parte of London Stone where the same were with a hammer broken in all pieces.^[16][17]

The reference to "the remayning parte of London Stone" may suggest that it had been damaged and reduced in size, perhaps in theGreat Fire of London five years earlier, which had destroyed St Swithin's church and the neighbouring buildings; it was later covered with a small stone cupola to protect it.^[18]

In 1598 John Stow had commented that "if carts do run against it through negligence, the wheels be broken, and the stone itself unshaken",^[6] and by 1742 it was considered an obstruction to traffic. The remaining part of the Stone was then moved, with its protective cupola, from the south side of the street to the north side, where it was first set beside the door ofSt Swithin's Church, which had been rebuilt byChristopher Wren after its destruction in the Great Fire. It was moved again in 1798 to the east end of the church's south wall, and finally in the 1820s set in an alcove in the centre of the wall within a solidly built stone frame set on aplinth, with a circular aperture through which the Stone itself could be seen. In 1869 theLondon and Middlesex Archaeological Society arranged for the installation of a protective iron grille and an explanatory inscription in Latin and English on the church wall above it.^[19]

During the 19th and 20th centuries the London Stone was regularly referred to in popular London histories and guidebooks, and visited by tourists; during his stay in England in the 1850s the American authorNathaniel Hawthorne recorded a visit to London Stone in his journal, noting the indentations on the top "which are said to have been made by Jack Cade’s sword".^[20] In 1937Arthur Mee, the founder ofThe Children's Newspaper and author ofThe King's England series of guidebooks, described it as "a fragment of its old self [...] said by some to have been a stone set up in Stone Age days".^[21]

The archaeologistGeorge Byron Gordon was more expansive (and fanciful) in the course of hisRambles in Old London, published in 1924. He described London Stone as "the very oldest object in London streets" and "an object of great antiquity when the Romans arrived and their predecessors the ancient Britons found it on their arrival more than two thousand years before. It was erected by the people of the New Stone Age".^[22]

In 1940 St Swithin's church was burnt out by bombing inthe Blitz. However, the outer walls remained standing for many years, with London Stone still in its place in the south wall. In 1962 the remains of the church were demolished, and replaced by an office building, 111 Cannon Street, which originally housed theBank of China; London Stone was placed without ceremony in a specially constructed Portland stone alcove, glazed and guarded with an iron grille, in the new building.^[4] Inside the building it was protected by a glass case. The stone and its surround, including the iron grille, were designated a Grade II*listed structure on 5 June 1972.^[1]

In the early 21st century the office building was scheduled for redevelopment, and in October 2011 the then landowners proposed to move the stone to a new location further to the west. Objections were raised by, among others,the Victorian Society andEnglish Heritage, and the proposal was rejected by theCity of London Corporation.^[23][24]

Until February 2016 the ground floor of the building was occupied by a branch ofWHSmith newsagents.^[25] Inside the shop London Stone in its glass case was hidden behind a magazine rack and not usually accessible. In March 2016, planning permission was granted to allow the building to be demolished and replaced by a new one. The Stone was put on temporary display at theMuseum of London while the building works were carried out.^[26][27][28] It was returned to Cannon Street in October 2018. The new premises publicly display London Stone on aplinth, within aPortland stone casing loosely inspired by its 19th–century predecessor, and behind glass. The plaque adjacent to the Stone reads

London Stone

The remaining part of London Stone, which once stood in the middle of Cannon Street, slightly west of its present location. Its original purpose is unknown, although it may be Roman and related to Roman buildings that lay to the south. It was already called 'London Stone' in the 12th century and became an important city landmark. In 1450 Jack Cade, leader of the rebellion against the corrupt government of Henry VI, struck it with his sword and claimed to be Lord of London.

In 1742, London Stone was moved to the north side of the street and eventually set in an alcove in the wall of St Swithin's church on this site.

The church was bombed in the Second World War and demolished in 1961–1962, and London Stone was incorporated into a new office building on the site. Following redevelopment it was placed in its present location in 2018.

TheShort English Metrical Chronicle, an anonymous history of England in verse composed in about the 1330s, which survives in several variantrecensions (including one in the so-calledAuchinleck manuscript), includes the statement that "Brut sett Londen ston" – that is to say, thatBrutus of Troy, the legendary founder of London, set up London Stone.^[29][30] This claim suggests that interest in the stone's origin and significance already existed. However, the story does not seem to have circulated widely elsewhere, and was not repeated in other chronicles.

In 1598 the London historianJohn Stow admitted that "The cause why this stone was set there, the time when, or other memory hereof, is none".^[6] However, his contemporaryWilliam Camden, in hisBritannia of 1586, concluded that it was a Romanmilliarium, a central stone from which all distances inRoman Britain were measured, and similar to theMilliarium Aureum of Rome.^[31] This identification remains popular, although there is no archaeological evidence to support it.^[32]

Alternatively, writers in the 18th century speculated that the Stone was prehistoric and had been an object ofDruidic worship.^[33] Although this suggestion is now generally dismissed, it was revived in 1914 by Elizabeth Gordon in an unorthodox book on the archaeology ofprehistoric London. She envisaged London Stone as an ancient British "index stone" pointing to a great Druidicstone circle, similar toStonehenge, and claimed it had once stood on the site ofSt Paul's.^[34] As noted above, in 1924 American archaeologist George Byron Gordon claimed a"New Stone Age" date for it, but such claims do not find favour with modern archaeologists, since there is no evidence.^[32]

By the early 19th century, a number of writers had suggested that London Stone was once regarded as London's"Palladium", a talismanic monument in which, like the originalPalladium of Troy, the city's safety and wellbeing were embodied.^[35] This view seemed to be confirmed when a pseudonymous contributor to the journalNotes and Queries in 1862 quoted a supposedly ancient proverb about London Stone to the effect that "So long as the Stone of Brutus is safe, so long shall London flourish".^[36]

This verse, if it were genuine, would link London Stone to Brutus of Troy, as well as confirming its role as a Palladium. However, the writer inNotes and Queries was identified asRichard Williams Morgan, an eccentric Welsh clergyman. In an earlier book, Morgan had claimed that the legendary Brutus was a historical figure; London Stone, he wrote, had been theplinth on which the original TrojanPalladium had stood, and was brought to Britain by Brutus and set up as the altar stone of the Temple of Diana in his new capital city ofTrinovantum or "New Troy" (i.e. London).^[37] This story, and the verse about the "Stone of Brutus", can be found nowhere any earlier than in Morgan's writings, and both are probably his own invention. Although London Stone had been associated with Brutus in the 14th century, that tradition had never reached print, and there is nothing to indicate that Morgan had encountered it.^[38] The spurious verse is still frequently quoted, but there is no evidence that London's safety has ever traditionally been linked to that of London Stone.^[39]

In 1881Henry Charles Coote argued that London Stone's name and reputation arose simply because it was the last remaining fragment of the house ofHenry Fitz-Ailwin of London Stone (c. 1135–1212), London's first Mayor, although London Stone was mentioned about 100 years before Henry's time, and the Fitz-Ailwin house was some distance from the stone on the other side of St Swithin's church.[40]^[41]

In 1890 the folklorist and London historianGeorge Laurence Gomme proposed that London Stone was the city's original "fetish stone", erected when the first prehistoric settlement was founded on the site and treated as sacred ever after.^[42] Later, folkloristLewis Spence combined this theory with Morgan's story of the "Stone of Brutus" to speculate about the pre-Roman origins of London in a 1937.^[43][44]

By the 1960s, archaeologists had noted that in its original location London Stone would have been aligned on the centre of a large Roman building, probably an administrative building, now known to have lain in the area ofCannon Street station. This has been tentatively identified as apraetorium, even the local "governor's palace". It has further been suggested – originally by the archaeologist Peter Marsden, who excavated there from 1961–1972 – that the Stone may have formed part of its main entrance or gate.^[45][46] This "praetorium gate theory", while impossible to prove, is the prevailing one among modern experts.^[47]

London Stone has been identified as a "mark-stone" on severalley lines passing through central London.^[48][49] It has also entered thepsychogeographical writings ofIain Sinclair as an essential element in London's "sacred geometry".^[50][26]

There are two recent additions to the mythology surrounding London Stone. The first claims thatJohn Dee – astrologer, occultist and adviser to Queen Elizabeth I – "was fascinated by the supposed powers of the London Stone and lived close to it for a while" and may have chipped pieces off it foralchemical experiments; the second that a legend identifies it as the stone from whichKing Arthur pulled thesword to reveal that he was rightful king. Both these "legends" seem first to be recorded in 2002.^{[51][citation needed]} The first may have been inspired by the fictionalised John Dee ofPeter Ackroyd's 1993 novelThe House of Doctor Dee (seeIn literature below).

So familiar was London Stone to Londoners that from an early date it features in London literature and in stories set in London. Thus, in an often reprinted anonymous satirical poem of the early 15th century, "London Lickpenny" (sometimes attributed toJohn Lydgate), the protagonist, lost and bewildered, passes London Stone during his wanderings through the city streets:

Then went I forth by London Stone
Thrwgheout all Canywike Strete ...^[52]

In about 1522 a pamphlet was published by the London printerWynkyn de Worde.^[53] It comprised two anonymous humorous poems, the second of which,The Maryage ..., just two pages in length, purports to be an invitation to the forthcoming wedding between London Stone and the "Bosse of Billingsgate", a water fountain nearBillingsgate erected or renovated in the 1420s under the terms of the will of themayorRichard Whittington.^[54] Guests are invited to watch the couple dancing – "It wolde do you good to see them daunce and playe." The text, however, goes on to suggest that both London Stone and the Bosse were known for their steadfastness and reliability.

London Stone also features in a tractThe Returne of the renowned Caualiero Pasquill of England ... published in 1589.^[55][12] Otherwise known asPasquill and Marforius it was one of three that were printed under the pseudonym ofthe Cavaliero Pasquill, and contributed to theMarprelate controversy, a war of words between the Church of England establishment and its critics. At the end of this short work, Pasquill declares his intention of posting a notice on London Stone, inviting all critics of his opponent, the similarly pseudonymousMartin Marprelate, to write out their complaints and stick them up on the Stone. Some writers have argued that this fictional episode proves that London Stone was a traditional place for making official proclamations.^[43][56]

TheJack Cade episode was dramatised inWilliam Shakespeare'sHenry VI, Part 2 (act 4, scene 6), first performedc. 1591–2. In Shakespeare's elaborated version of the event, Cade strikes London Stone with a staff rather than a sword, then seats himself upon the Stone as if on a throne, to issue decrees and dispense rough justice to a follower who displeases him.[57]

In 1598, London Stone was again brought to the stage, inWilliam Haughton's comedyEnglishmen for My Money, when three foreigners, being led about on stage through the supposedly pitch-black night-time streets of London, blunder into it.^[58]

Later, London Stone was to play an important but not always consistent role in the visionary writings ofWilliam Blake. Thus inJerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion, his long illustrated poem on engraved plates begun in 1804, London Stone is aDruidic altar, the site of bloody sacrifices. Alternatively inJerusalem and inMilton a Poem it is the geographic centre ofGolgonooza, Blake's mystical city of London; it is a place where justice is delivered, whereLos sits to hear the voice of Jerusalem, and where Reuben sleeps.^[59]

Ray Nelson's science fiction novelBlake's Progress (1975), based on the writings ofWilliam Blake, featured analternative history in whichCleopatra won theBattle of Actium and anAlexandrian Empire replaced theRoman Empire. In the alternate London, called Gogonooza, the London Stone is present, standing in front of a Temple ofIsis.

In the last years of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st, the Stone has made an increasing number of appearances in novels of imagination andurban fantasy.

• InPeter Ackroyd's novelThe House of Doctor Dee (1993), the character Dr. Dee, vaguely based upon the historical figure of the occultistJohn Dee, claims that London Stone is the last remnant above ground of a glorious antediluvian and now buried city of London that he is searching for.
• London Stone appears as an embodiment of evil inCharlie Fletcher's trilogy for childrenStoneheart (2006–2008).
• It features inThe Midnight Mayor (2010),Kate Griffin's second Matthew Swift novel about urban magic in London
• It is also part ofChina Miéville'sKraken (2010),^[26] in which it is the beating heart of London and the sports shop that (at the time Miéville was writing) housed it hides the headquarters of the "Londonmancers" who may know the whereabouts of thekraken stolen from theNatural History Museum.
• The third of a series of fantasy novels for childrenThe Nowhere Chronicles bySarah Pinborough, writing as Sarah Silverwood, is entitledThe London Stone (2012): "The London Stone has been stolen and the Dark King rules the Nowhere ..."
• InMarie Brennan'sOnyx Court series (2008–2011), the Stone is part of the magical bond between the mortal Prince of the Stone and the fairie court beneath London.
• The Stone appears in several chapters ofEdward Rutherfurd's novel,London (1997). In the second chapter we see it as the marker stone for all the roads in RomanLondinium, and also sitting beside the wall of the Governor's Palace as mentioned above as a hypothesis of its use or origin. It is seen again in the ninth chapter where the main family unit of the novel bring in the character of the foundling who is found propped up against it. It is one of the many central focus points in the novel that the author uses to tie the different time periods together.
• The Stone is a central focus ofDC ComicsVertigo storyline calledThe Knowledge (2008), featuringJohn Constantine'ssidekickChas Chandler.^[60]
• The Stone also appears many times in theDark Fae FBI series (2017), by C.N. Crawford and Alex Rivers, in which it is the site of many ancient sacrifices and is used to channel memories and power.
• The Stone is mentioned inNicci French's crime novelTuesday's Gone (2013).
• The Stone and its surrounding area is mentioned inJodi Taylor's short storyChristmas Pie (2023).

• For the London Stone at Staines, and other Thames riverside boundary markers, seeLondon Stone (riparian).
• For the "Brutus Stone" in Totnes, Devon, seeTotnes.
• List of individual rocks

• "London Stone" (web main).
• Clark, John."London Stone"(PDF). Vintry and Dowgate Wards Club. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 March 2012. Retrieved24 April 2013.
• Clark, John (11 January 2017).London Stone: History and Myth (Report). Retrieved22 January 2018.
• "London Stone".The Modern Antiquarian (themodernantiquarian.com). Retrieved24 April 2013.
• Jenstad, Janelle (2010)."London Stone". The map of early modern London. University of Victoria. Retrieved27 April 2013. — Article on London Stone linked to a reproduction of the"Woodcut" map of London,c. 1562.
• Coughlan, Sean (22 May 2006)."London's heart of stone".BBC News Magazine. BBC. Retrieved24 April 2013. — report on plans to move London Stone in 2006.

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