London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.[25] The 2023 population of Greater London of just under 10 million[26] made it Europe'sthird-most populous city,[27] accounting for 13.4% of the United Kingdom's population[28] and over 16% of England's population. TheGreater London Built-up Area is thefourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011.[3][29] The London metropolitan area is thethird-most populous in Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants as of 2016, making London amegacity.[g][30][31]
London is an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in theLatinised formLondinium.[35] Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources:Latin (usuallyLondinium),Old English (usuallyLunden), andWelsh (usuallyLlundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages fromCommon Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as*Londonjon or something similar. This was then adapted into Latin asLondinium and borrowed into Old English.[36]
In 1993, remains of aBronze Age bridge were found on the south River Thamesforeshore, upstream fromVauxhall Bridge.[38] Two of the timbers wereradiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BC.[38] In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC,[39] were found on the Thames' south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.[40] Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-undergroundRiver Effra flows into the Thames.[40]
Despite the evidence of scatteredBrythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by theRomans around 47 AD,[1] about 4 years after their invasion of 43 AD.[41] This only lasted until about 61 AD, when theIceni tribe led byQueen Boudica stormed it and burnt it to the ground.[42]
The next planned incarnation ofLondinium prospered, supersedingColchester as the principal city of theRoman province ofBritannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.[43]
With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, althoughRoman civilisation continued aroundSt Martin-in-the-Fields until about 450.[44] From about 500, anAnglo-Saxon settlement known asLundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city.[45] By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeatedViking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.[46]
The Vikings appliedDanelaw over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London toChester as an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by theDanishwarlord,Guthrum and theWest Saxon kingAlfred the Great in 886. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred "refounded" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the oldRoman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950.[47]
By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England.Westminster Abbey, rebuilt inRomanesque style by KingEdward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe.Winchester had been the capital ofAnglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view ofFrank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to anational capital."[48]
In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes atWestminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in theTower. While theCity of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, theCity of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, theCorporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.[52] With theBlack Death in the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population.[53] London was the focus of thePeasants' Revolt in 1381.[54]
London was a centre of England'sJewish population before theirexpulsion byEdward I in 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.[55] In 1264 during theSecond Barons' War,Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.[56]
During theTudor period, theReformation produced a gradual shift toProtestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.[57] In 1475, theHanseatic League set up a main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called theStalhof orSteelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities ofLübeck,Bremen andHamburg sold the property toSouth Eastern Railway.[58]Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of theLow Countries.[59]
Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas ofnorth-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and theMediterranean was normally throughAntwerp and over theAlps; any ships passing through theStrait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian orRagusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity.[60] TheRoyal Exchange was founded.[61]Mercantilism grew and monopoly traders such as theEast India Company were founded as trade expanded to theNew World. London became the mainNorth Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.[57]
Map of London in 1593. There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed.
By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt onJames I in Westminster, in theGunpowder Plot of 5 November 1605.[64] In 1637, the government ofCharles I attempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish theLiberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's "The Great Refusal", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of theCity.[65]
In theEnglish Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported theParliamentary cause. After an initial advance by theRoyalists in 1642, culminating in the battles ofBrentford andTurnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as theLines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.[66] The fortifications failed their only test when theNew Model Army entered London in 1647,[67] and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.[66][68] London wasplagued by disease in the early 17th century,[69] culminating in theGreat Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.[69] TheGreat Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.[70] Rebuilding took over 10 years and was supervised by polymathRobert Hooke.[71]
In 1710,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed, replacing its medieval predecessor that burned in the Great Fire of 1666. The dome of St Paul's dominated the London skyline for centuries, inspiring the artworks and writing ofWilliam Blake, with his 1789 poem "Holy Thursday" referring to 'the high dome of Pauls'.[72] During theGeorgian era, new districts such asMayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development inSouth London. In the east, thePort of London expanded downstream. London's development as an internationalfinancial centre matured for much of the 18th century.[73]
In 1762,George III acquiredBuckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime,[74] and theBow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.[75] Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.[76]
Coffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growingliteracy and development of theprinting press made news widely available, withFleet Street becoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, theRoyal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. Following a fire in 1838, the Royal Exchange was redesigned byWilliam Tite and rebuilt in 1844. The repeal of theCorn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.[77]
Late modern and contemporary
TheRoyal Exchange in 1886. It was founded in 1571 (with the present building rebuilt in 1844) as a centre of commerce for the City of London.
London's overcrowded conditions and the "Great Stink" of the River Thames led tocholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.[82] A key development in public health and sanitation took place at theGreat Exhibition of 1851 at Hyde Park whenGeorge Jennings installed the first publicflush toilets.[83] In response to the exacerbation of sanitary conditions brought on by heavy industrialisation and urbanisation, the modernsewage system was created in London by theMetropolitan Board of Works led by its chief engineerJoseph Bazalgette.[84] TheLondon sewer system included 82 miles (132 km) of main and 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of street sewers that diverted waste to the Thames Estuary, and by the 1890s it would also feature the revolutionary biologicaltreatment of sewage to oxidize the waste.[85][86] The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when theLondon County Council was created out of county areas surrounding the capital.[87]
From the early 20th century onwards,teashops were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, withLyons, who opened the first of theirchain of teashops inPiccadilly in 1894, leading the way.[88] Tearooms, such as theCriterion in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.[89] The city was the target of many attacks during thesuffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such asWestminster Abbey andSt Paul's Cathedral bombed.[90]
British volunteer recruits in London, August 1914, duringWorld War I
The1948 Summer Olympics were held at the originalWembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war.[94] From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily fromCommonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,[95] making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, theFestival of Britain was held on theSouth Bank.[96] TheGreat Smog of 1952 led to theClean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea soup fogs" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the "Big Smoke".[97]
Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.[103] The principal ports for London moved downstream toFelixstowe andTilbury, with theLondon Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including theCanary Wharf development. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.[104] Located about 2 miles (3 km) east of central London, theThames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from theNorth Sea.[105]
In 2008,Time named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong asNylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influentialglobal cities.[108] In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.[109] During theBrexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave theEuropean Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining.[110] However, Britain'sexit from the EU in early 2020 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre.[111]
The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by theGreater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.[113] The GLA consists of two elected components: themayor of London, who hasexecutive powers, and theLondon Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional armTransport for London (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.[114] The headquarters of the GLA isCity Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has beenSadiq Khan, the firstMuslim mayor of a major Western capital.[115] The mayor'sstatutory planning strategy is published as theLondon Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.[116]
The local authorities are the councils of the 32London boroughs and theCity of London Corporation.[117] They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation,social services, local roads and refuse collection.[118] Certain functions, such aswaste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).[119]
Headquarters ofMI6, the UK's foreign intelligence service, at theSIS Building. Scenes featuringJames Bond (the fictional MI6 agent) have been filmed here.
Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally atLocal Authority andWard level.[132] In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.[133]Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved.[134] However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the year, and the murder rate in London is much lower thanother major cities around the world.[135]
London, also known asGreater London, is one of nineregions of England and the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. TheCity of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, theCorporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with itssuburbs, causing "London" to be defined several ways.[136]
Satellite view of London in June 2018
Forty percent of Greater London is covered by theLondon post town, in which 'London' forms part of postal addresses.[137] The London telephonearea code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has beenaligned to the M25 motorway in places.[138]
It is the capital of the United Kingdom and of England byconvention rather than statute. The capital of England was moved to London fromWinchester as thePalace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of theroyal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.[145]
Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km2).[146]
Modern London stands on theThames, its primary geographical feature, anavigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. TheThames Valley is aflood plain surrounded by gently rolling hills includingParliament Hill,Addington Hills, andPrimrose Hill. Historically London grew up at thelowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensivemarshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.[147]
Since theVictorian era the Thames has been extensivelyembanked, and many of its Londontributaries now flowunderground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.[148] The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise inhigh water level caused byclimate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result ofpost-glacial rebound.[149]
London has a temperateoceanic climate (Köppen:Cfb). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began atKew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893.[150] The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm).[151] The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600mm, which is half the annual rainfall ofNew York City.[152] Despite relatively low annual precipitation, London receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0mm threshold annually. London is vulnerable toclimate change, and there is concern amonghydrological experts that households may run out of water before 2050.[153]
Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981.[154][155] Records foratmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.[156]
Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.[157] A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths.[158] A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.[159] Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.[160] However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.[161]
Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerableurban heat island effect,[162] making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts.[163]
Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such asMayfair,Southwark,Wembley, andWhitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes orformer boroughs.[173]
Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.[174] The City of London is the main financial district,[175] andCanary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in theDocklands to the east.
West London is located west of the City of London. TheWest End of London is a prestigious area of inner West London focussed on parts ofWestminster close to the City of London. The West End includes London’s main shopping and entertainment areas, includingLondon Theatreland, and as such attracts many tourists.[176] West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.[177] The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million.[178][179]
East London is located to the east of the City of London, with theEast End being the part of East London closest to the City of London. It has long been known for its high immigrant population and for being one of the poorest areas of the capital.[180] East London included the main northern part of thePort of London and extensive industrial areas. In the late 20th century, deindustrialisation and the closure of the docks brought great hardship. Throughout the area many large brownfield areas now being redeveloped includingLondon Riverside and theLower Lea Valley, which was developed into theOlympic Park for the2012 Olympics and Paralympics.[180]
TheTower of London, a medieval castle, dating in part to 1078
London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as theNational Gallery, are constructed fromPortland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by whitestucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date theGreat Fire of 1666, these being a few traceRoman remains, theTower of London and a few scatteredTudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-periodHampton Court Palace.[181]
The east wing public façade ofBuckingham Palace was built between 1847 and 1850; it was remodelled to its present form in 1913.Trafalgar Square and its fountains, withNelson's Column on the right
TheLondon Natural History Society suggests that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities" with more than 40% green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that thetidal Thames supports 120 species of fish.[189] They state that over 60 species of bird nest incentral London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1,173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London'swetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), twonational nature reserves and 76local nature reserves.[190]
Herds ofred andfallow deer roam freely within much ofRichmond andBushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.[195] Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population ofmelanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary nearTheydon Bois.Muntjac deer are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.[196]
London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011,[3] while its widermetropolitan area had a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used.[198] According toEurostat, London is the secondmost populous metropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001.[199]
The region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km2), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km2)[146] more than ten times that of any otherBritish region.[200] In population terms, London is the 19thlargest city and the 18thlargest metropolitan region.[201]
In tenure, 23.1% socially rent within London, 46.8% either own their house outright or with a mortgage or loan and 30% privately rent at the 2021 census.[202] Many Londoners work from home, 42.9% did so at the 2021 census while 20.6% drive a car to work. The biggest decrease in method of transportation was seen within those who take the train and underground, declining from 22.6% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2021.[203] In qualifications, 46.7% of London had census classified Level 4 qualifications or higher, which is predominately university degrees. 16.2% had no qualifications at all.[204]
Age structure and median age
London's median age is one of the youngest regions in the UK. It was recorded in 2018 that London's residents were 36.5 years old, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3.[205]
Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London.[205]
Country of birth
The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population wereforeign-born,[206] making it among the cities with thelargest immigrant population in terms of absolute numbers and a growth of roughly 3 million since 1971 when the foreign born population was 668,373.[207] 13% of the total population were Asian born (32.1% of the total foreign born population), 7.1% are African born (17.5%), 15.5% are Other European born (38.2%), and 4.2% were born in the Americas and Caribbean (10.3%).[208] The 5 largest single countries of origin were respectively India, Romania, Poland, Bangladesh and Pakistan.[208]
About 56.8% of children born in London in 2021 were born to a mother who was born abroad.[209] This trend has been increasing in the past two decades when foreign born mothers made up 43.3% of births in 2001 in London, becoming the majority in the middle of the 2000s by 2006 comprising 52.5%.[209]
A large degree of the foreign born population who were present at the 2021 census had arrived relatively recently. Of the total population, those that arrived between the years of 2011 and 2021 account for 16.6% of London.[210] Those who arrived between 2001 and 2010 are 10.4%, between 1991 and 2001, 5.7%, and prior to 1990, 7.3%.[210]
According to theOffice for National Statistics, based on the 2021 census, 53.8% of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London wereWhite, with 36.8%White British, 1.8%White Irish, 0.1%Gypsy orIrish Traveller, 0.4% Roma and 14.7% classified asOther White.[211] Meanwhile, 22.2% of Londoners were ofAsian or mixed-Asian descent, with 20.8% being of full Asian descent and 1.4% being of mixed-Asian heritage.Indians accounted for 7.5% of the population, followed byBangladeshis andPakistanis at 3.7% and 3.3% respectively.Chinese people accounted for 1.7%, andArabs for 1.6%. A further 4.6% were classified as "Other Asian."[211] 15.9% of London's population were ofBlack or mixed-Black descent. 13.5% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.4%.Black Africans accounted for 7.9% of London's population; 3.9% identified asBlack Caribbean, and 1.7% as "Other Black." 5.7% were ofmixed race.[211] This ethnic structure has changed considerably since the 1960s. Estimates for 1961 put the total non-White ethnic minority population at 179,109 comprising 2.3% of the population at the time,[212][213] having risen since then to 1,346,119 and 20.2% in 1991[214] and 4,068,553 and 46.2% in 2021.[215] Of those of a White British background, estimates for 1971 put the population at 6,500,000 and 87% of the total population,[216] of since fell to 3,239,281 and 36.8% in 2021.[215]
As of 2021, the majority of London's school pupils come from ethnic minority backgrounds. 23.9% were White British, 14% Other White, 23.2% Asian, 17.9% Black, 11.3% Mixed, 6.3% Other and 2.3% unclassified.[217] Altogether at the 2021 census, of London's 1,695,741 population aged 0 to 15, 42% were White in total, splitting it down into 30.9% who were White British, 0.5% Irish, 10.6% Other White, 23% Asian, 16.4% Black, 12% Mixed and 6.6% another ethnic group.[218]
Languages
In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000.[219] At the 2021 census, 78.4% of Londoners spoke English as their first language.[220] The 5 biggest languages outside of English were Romanian, Spanish, Polish, Bengali, and Portuguese.[220]
According to the2021 Census, the largest religious groupings wereChristians (40.66%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%),Muslims (15%), no response (8.5%),Hindus (5.15%), Jews (1.65%),Sikhs (1.64%),Buddhists (1.0%) and other (0.8%).[221][222]
Important national and royal ceremonies are shared betweenSt Paul's andWestminster Abbey.[225] The Abbey is not to be confused with nearbyWestminster Cathedral, the largestRoman Catholic cathedral inEngland and Wales.[226] Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.[227]
Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs ofHarrow andBrent, the latter hosting what was until 2006[233] Europe's largestHindu temple,Neasden Temple.[234] London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including theBAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.[235]
Traditionally, anyone born within earshot of the bells ofSt Mary-le-Bow church was considered to be a trueCockney.[238]
Cockney is an accent heard across London, mainly spoken byworking-class andlower-middle-class Londoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older.[239] Some features of Cockney includeTh-fronting (pronouncing "th" as "f"), "th" inside a word is pronounced with a "v",H-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accentdrops the "r" after a vowel.[240] John Camden Hotten, in hisSlang Dictionary of 1859, makes reference to Cockney "use of a peculiar slang language" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing thecostermongers of the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in thehome counties.[241] This is particularly pronounced in areas like Romford (in the London Borough of Havering) andSouthend (in Essex), which have received significant inflows of older East End residents in recent decades.[242]
Multicultural London English (MLE) is amultiethnolect becoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence.[245]
Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard forBritish English.[246] It has no specific geographical correlate,[247] although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England.[248] It is mainly spoken byupper-class andupper-middle class Londoners.[249] Standard Southern British English (SSBE) has been considered as an evolution of RP that is now common and widely spoken in London and the south-east of England by a wide variety of people, but is distinct from Estuary English and MLE.[250]
London'sgross regional product in 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter ofUK GDP.[251] London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington, and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.[252]
City of London
London's finance industry is based in theCity of London andCanary Wharf, the two majorbusiness districts. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. This caused many bankers established inAmsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring I'm), to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century.[73] The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.[77] This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity.[253][254]
By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency.[256] As of 2023[update], London ranks second in the world rankings on theGlobal Financial Centres Index (GFCI),[257] and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.[258]
London's largest industry is finance, and itsfinancial exports make it a large contributor to the UK'sbalance of payments. Notwithstanding a post-Brexit exodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,[259][260] London is still one of Europe's most economically powerful cities,[17] and it remains one of the major financial centres of the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37% of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.[261] Over 85% (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the2008 financial crisis. However, by 2010, the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.[262] Along withprofessional services headquarters, the City of London is home to theBank of England, London Stock Exchange, andLloyd's of London insurance market.[263] Founded in 1690,Barclays, whosebranch in Enfield, north London installed the firstcash machine (ATM) in 1967, is one of theoldest banks in continuous operation.[264]
Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (theFTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70% of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75% ofFortune 500 companies have offices in London.[265] In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, SirAdrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery companyCadbury, produced theCadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform ofcorporate governance around the world.[266]
Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.[267] TheBBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters, includingITV,Channel 4,Channel 5, andSky, also have headquarters around the city. Manynational newspapers, includingThe Times, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the termFleet Street (where most national newspapers operated) remains ametonym for the British national press.[268] The communications companyWPP is the world's largest advertising agency.[269]
The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed byNational Grid plc,SGN[273] andUK Power Networks.[274]
London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.[275] Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.[276] The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.[277]
In 2015, the top ten most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London (shown with visits per venue):[278]
The number of hotel rooms in London in 2023 stood at 155,700 and is expected to grow to 183,600 rooms, the most of any city outside China.[279] Luxury hotels in London includethe Savoy (opened in 1889),Claridge's (opened in 1812 and rebuilt in 1898),the Ritz (opened in 1906) andthe Dorchester (opened in 1931), while budget hotel chains includePremier Inn andTravelodge.[280]
Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by theMayor of London,[281] but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007, the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form theLondon Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered byTransport for London (TfL).[114]
The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when theLondon Passenger Transport Board orLondon Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.[282]
Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport in Europe as well as the second busiest in the world for international passenger traffic (Terminal 5C is pictured).
London is a major international air transport hub with thebusiest city airspace in the world.[23] Eight airports use the wordLondon in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally,various other airports also serve London, catering primarily togeneral aviation flights.
Gatwick Airport, south of London inWest Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base ofeasyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.[285]
London Stansted Airport, north-east of London inEssex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base ofRyanair, the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.[286]
London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, inNewham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerablebusiness jet traffic.[288]
London Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines.[289] In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.[290]
Opened in 1863, theLondon Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longestmetro system in the world.[291][292] The system serves272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, theCity and South London Railway, which opened in 1890.[293]
Over 4 million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.[294] An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the2012 Summer Olympics.[295] TheDocklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, morelocal metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve theDocklands,Greenwich andLewisham.[296]
Suburban
There are368 railway stations in theLondon Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running intoeighteen terminal stations, with the exception of theThameslink trains connectingBedford in the north andBrighton in the south viaLuton andGatwick airports.[297] London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includesWaterloo East station) each year.[298]Clapham Junction is one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges.[299]
With the need for more rail capacity, theElizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022.[300] It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into theHome Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport.[301] It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.[302]
London is the centre of theNational Rail network, with 70% of rail journeys starting or ending in London.[303]King's Cross station andEuston station, both in London, are the starting points of theEast Coast Main Line and theWest Coast Main Line – the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns.[304]The Flying Scotsman is an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service,Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934.[305]
TheNew Routemaster (left) is the spiritual successor to theAEC Routemaster (right). First appearing in 1947, the red double-decker bus is an emblematic symbol of London.
London'sbus network runs 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops.[309] In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year.[310] Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.[311] London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world[312] and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.[313]
An emblem of London, the reddouble-decker bus first appeared in the city in 1947 with theAEC Regent III RT (predecessor to theAEC Routemaster).[314] London's coach hub isVictoria Coach Station, opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and then purchased by London Transport (nowTransport for London), Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe.[315]
There is a modern tram network serving South London, known asTramlink. It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried over 29 million people in 2017.[316] Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink.[317]
Cable car
London's first and to date only cable car is theLondon Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and linksGreenwich Peninsula with theRoyal Docks in the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times.[318]
Santander Cycle Hire, nearVictoria in Central London
In the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day,[319] meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.[320] Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of abicycle hire scheme in July 2010 was successful and generally well received.[321]
Port and river boats
ThePort of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.[322] Most of this cargo passes through thePort of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.[322]
Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. Theinner ring road (around the city centre), theNorth andSouth Circular roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (theM25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate intoinner London. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long.[326] TheA1 andM1 connect London toLeeds, andNewcastle andEdinburgh.[327]
Thehackney carriage (black cab) is a common sight on London streets. Black has been its standard colour since theAustin FX3 model in 1948.
TheAustin Motor Company began makinghackney carriages (London taxis) in 1929, and models includeAustin FX3 from 1948,Austin FX4 from 1958, with more recent modelsTXII andTX4 manufactured byLondon Taxis International. The BBC states, "ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions".[328]Although traditionally black, some are painted in other colours or bear advertising.[329]
London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h).[330] In 2003, acongestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.[331] Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.[332] Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000.[333]
Low Traffic Neighbourhoods (LTN) were widely introduced in London, but in 2023 the Department for Transport stopped funding them, even though the benefits outweighed the costs by approximately 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time.[334]
London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.[18] According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world[335] and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.[336] A 2014PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London the global capital of higher education.[337]A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022QS World University Rankings,Imperial College London is ranked No. 6 in the world,University College London (UCL) is ranked 8th, andKing's College London (KCL) is ranked 37th.[338] All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in theResearch Excellence Framework ranking 2021.[339] TheLondon School of Economics (LSE) has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[340] TheLondon Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by theFinancial Times.[341] The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings[342]): theRoyal College of Music (ranking 2nd in the world), theRoyal Academy of Music (ranking 4th) and theGuildhall School of Music and Drama (ranking 6th).[343]
Founded in 1675, theRoyal Observatory inGreenwich was established to address the problem of calculatinglongitude for navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royalNevil Maskelyne'sNautical Almanac which made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as theprime meridian (0° longitude) in 1884.[353]
Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London[356] at 25.6 events per 1000 people.[357] The city is one of the fourfashion capitals of the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,[358] and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.[359]
Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) longUpper Street, extending northwards fromAngel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK.[366] Europe's busiest shopping area isOxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers anddepartment stores, includingSelfridgesflagship store.[367]Knightsbridge, home to the equally renownedHarrods department store, lies to the south-west. One of the world's largest retail destinations, London frequently ranks at or near the top of retail sales of any city.[368][369] Opened in 1760 with its flagship store onRegent Street since 1881,Hamleys is the oldesttoy store in the world.[370] TheCamden Town shoe retailer ofDr. Martens footwear was a favourite haunt of punk musicians.[371]Madame Tussauds wax museum opened inBaker Street in 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began.[372]
The firstgay bar in London in the modern sense wasThe Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just offRegent Street, in 1912 and "which developed a reputation for sexual freedom and tolerance of same-sex relations".[387]
Wider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence ofglam rock in the UK in the early 1970s, viaMarc Bolan andDavid Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musicalThe Rocky Horror Show, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements.[390] TheBlitz Kids (which includedBoy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz inCovent Garden, helping launch theNew Romantic subcultural movement in the late 1970s.[391] Today, the annualLondon Pride Parade and theLondon Lesbian and Gay Film Festival are held in the city.[388]
London ishome to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are majortourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was theBritish Museum inBloomsbury, in 1753.[411] Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, theNational Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position inTrafalgar Square.[412]
In the latter half of the 19th century the locale ofSouth Kensington was developed as "Albertopolis", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: theVictoria and Albert Museum, theNatural History Museum, and theScience Museum. TheNational Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.[415] The national gallery of British art is atTate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved toTate Modern, a new gallery housed in the formerBankside Power Station which is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via theMillennium Bridge.[416]
Music
TheRoyal Albert Hall inSouth Kensington hosts concerts and musical events, including the classical music festivalThe Proms which are held every summer, as well as cinema screenings of films accompanied with live orchestral music.
Close to Richmond Park isKew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on theUNESCO list ofWorld Heritage Sites.[436] There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, includingVictoria Park in theEast End andBattersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, includingHampstead Heath andEpping Forest,[437] both controlled by theCity of London Corporation.[438] Hampstead Heath incorporatesKenwood House, a formerstately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake.[439] Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.[437] Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks,Thorpe Park near Staines-upon-Thames,Chessington World of Adventures in Chessington andLegoland Windsor, are located within 20 miles (32 km) of London.[440]
One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is theWimbledon Tennis Championships, held at theAll England Club in the south-western suburb ofWimbledon since 1877.[450] Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.[451][452] Founded in London in 1881,Slazenger has provided tennis balls for Wimbledon since 1902, the oldest sponsorship in sport.[453]
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^ab"Revealed: The most crowded skies on the planet".The Telegraph. London. 27 July 2018. Retrieved2 December 2023.London: Our capital's collective airport system is the busiest in the whole world. A total of 170,980,680 passengers.
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^abFlintham, David."London".Fortified Places. Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved28 March 2021.
^Harrington, Peter (2003).English Civil War Fortifications 1642–51, Volume 9 of Fortress, 9, Osprey Publishing,ISBN1-84176-604-6.p. 57
^Razzell, Peter; Razzell, Edward, eds. (1 January 1996).The English Civil War: A contemporary account (v. 1). Wencelaus Hollar (Illustrator), Christopher Hill (Introduction). Caliban Books.ISBN978-1850660316.Gardiner, Samuel R. (18 December 2016).History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649. Vol. 3. Forgotten Books (published 16 July 2017). p. 218.ISBN978-1334658464.
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^Derudder, Ben; Hoyler, Michael; Taylor, Peter J.; Witlox, Frank, eds. (2015).International Handbook of Globalization and World Cities.Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 422.ISBN9781785360688.
^Vinycomb, John (1909)."The Heraldic Dragon".Fictitious and Symbolic Creatures in Art. Internet Sacred Text Archive.Archived from the original on 28 May 2017. Retrieved23 July 2015.
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^Karimi, H.; Masoudi Alavi, N. (2015). "Florence Nightingale: The Mother of Nursing".National Institutes of Health. Vol. 4, no. 2. pp. e29475.PMC4557413.PMID26339672.
^Krock, Lexi (22 April 2003)."Anatomy of Photo 51".NOVA online. PBS.Archived from the original on 29 July 2010. Retrieved19 April 2023.
^Clarey, Christopher (7 May 2008)."Traditional Final: It's Nadal and Federer".The New York Times. Retrieved17 July 2008.Federer said[:] 'I love playing with him, especially here at Wimbledon, the most prestigious tournament we have.'
^Will Kaufman & Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, ed. (2005). "Tennis".Britain and the Americas. Vol. 1 : Culture, Politics, and History. ABC-CLIO. p. 958.ISBN978-1-85109-431-8.this first tennis championship, which later evolved into the Wimbledon Tournament ... continues as the world's most prestigious event.
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