From 1558 to 1578, Russia dominated the region with early military successes atDorpat (Tartu) andNarva. The Russian dissolution of theLivonian Confederation brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict, and Sweden and Denmark-Norway intervened between 1559 and 1561.Swedish Estonia was established despite constant invasion from Russia, andFrederick II of Denmark-Norway bought the oldBishopric of Ösel–Wiek, which he placed under the control of his brotherMagnus of Holstein. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russianvassal state, theKingdom of Livonia, which nominally existed until his defection in 1576.
In 1576,Stephen Báthory became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at theBattle of Wenden. That was followed by an extendedcampaign through Russia, culminating in the long and difficultSiege of Pskov. Under the 1582Truce of Jam Zapolski, which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all of its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed theTruce of Plussa, with Sweden gaining most ofIngria and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.
By the mid-16th century, economically prosperousOld Livonia[2] had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously dividedLivonian Confederation.[3] Its territories consisted of theLivonian branch of theTeutonic Order, theprince-bishopricsof Dorpat (Tartu),Ösel–Wiek, as well asCourland, theArchbishopric of Riga and the city ofRiga.[2][4] Together with Riga, the cities ofDorpat (Tartu) andReval (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently.[4] The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known asLandtags.[2] As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the Archbishop of Riga and theLandmeister of the Order for hegemony.[nb 1][2][4] A schism had existed within the Order since theReformation had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into aLutheran region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order that to a varying degree remained sympathetic toRoman Catholicism.[5] As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies.Robert I. Frost notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."[6]
The Order'sLandmeister and theGebietigers, as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class.[7] Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles.[8]Wilhelm von Brandenburg was appointed as Archbishop of Riga andChristoph von Mecklenburg as hisCoadjutor, with the help of his brotherAlbert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach, the former PrussianHochmeister who hadsecularised the southernTeutonic Order state and in 1525 established himself asduke in Prussia.[9] Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model.[9] At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("Rekuperation") in Prussia,[10] opposed secularization, and creation of a hereditary duchy.[8]
By the time the Livonian War broke out, theHanseatic League had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperousBaltic Sea trade.[11] While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with European mercenary fleets, most notably from theDutchSeventeen Provinces and France.[11] The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships,[12] and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade,[13] its Livonian membersRiga,Reval (Tallinn), and trading partnerNarva were left without suitable protection.[14] TheDanish navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled theentrance to the Baltic Sea,[12] collectedrequisite tolls,[13] and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands ofBornholm andGotland.[12]
A long bar of Danish territories in the south and lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limitedSweden's access to Baltic trade.[15] Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron, and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy[15] and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrowGulf of Finland.[16] Before the Livonian War, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through theRusso-Swedish War of 1554–1557, which culminated in the 1557Treaty of Novgorod.[15]
Through its absorption of the principalities ofNovgorod (1478) andPskov (1510),[17] theTsardom of Russia had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing thekhanates ofKazan (1552) andAstrakhan (1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The newIvangorod port – built in 1550 during the reign of Tsar Ivan IV on the eastern shore of theNarva River – was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters.[18] Thereafter the tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000marks to keep theBishopric of Dorpat, based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state.[18] The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum toIvan by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations.[18] Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary.[18] He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on theCaspian Sea, because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.[18]
The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand DukeSigismund II Augustus was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes.[19] Therefore, Sigismund supported his cousinWilhelm von Brandenburg, archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts withWilhelm von Fürstenberg, the Livonian Order'slandmeister.[20] Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like theDuchy of Prussia underDuke Albert, would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania.[21] With weak support in Livonia,[20] von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters waslandmarschallJasper von Munster, with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert.[22] However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave theKiev Voivodeship exposed to a pending Russian attack.[22] When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds ofKokenhusen andRonneburg.[22] Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained atAdsel andTreiden. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by thePomeranian dukes, the Danish King,[22] EmperorFerdinand I, and the estates of theHoly Roman Empire.[23] A cross-party meeting inLübeck to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys.[23] Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by thelandmeister's son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp inPozvol in September 1557.[16] There they signed theTreaty of Pozvol, which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.[16]
Ivan IV regarded theLivonian Confederation's approach to thePolish–Lithuanian union for protection under theTreaty of Pozvol ascasus belli.[24] In 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania.[25] On 22 January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. The Russians were seen by local peasants as liberators from the German control of Livonia.[26] Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat (Tartu) in May, Narva in July[nb 2][27] and laid siege to Reval (Tallinn).[28] Reinforced by 1,200Landsknechts, 100 gunners, and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retookWesenberg (Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat (Tartu), Narva, and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands.[29] The initial Russian advance was led by theKhan of QasimShahghali, with two other Tatar princes at the head of a force that included Russianboyars, Tatar, andPomestnoe cavalry, as well asCossacks,[30] who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers.[31] Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560.[29] In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia.[32] A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in theRusso-Crimean Wars.[33]
Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from EmperorFerdinand I, then turned to Poland–Lithuania.[34]Landmeister von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced byGotthard Kettler. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the firstTreaty of Vilnius. The Polishsejm refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.[16] In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.[35]
Russian atrocities in Livonia. Printed inZeyttung published inNuremberg in 1561.
Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support.[30] The Tsar's forces took important fortresses likeFellin (Viljandi), yet lacked the means to gain the major cities ofRiga, Reval (Tallinn), orPernau (Pärnu).[29] The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at theBattle of Ērģeme in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.[33]
Eric XIV, the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help.[36] The weakenedLivonian Order was dissolved by thesecond Treaty of Vilnius in 1561. Its lands were secularised as theDuchy of Livonia andDuchy of Courland and Semigallia and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism.[16] Included in the treaty was thePrivilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to theAugsburg Confession, theIndygenat, and continuation of the traditional German administration.[37] The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.[38]
Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed the growing Polish–Lithuanian union and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV.[39] The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops.[40] Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.[40]
In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 givingFrederick II of Denmark-Norway the right to nominate the bishop ofÖsel–Wiek, an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000thalers.[41] Frederick II nominated his brother,Duke Magnus of Holstein as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark-Norway made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region.[42] Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing theBishopric of Courland without Frederick's consent and trying to expand intoHarrien–Wierland (Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.[29]
In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and thenoble corporations of Harrien–Wierland andJerwen (Järva) yielded toSweden to form theDuchy of Estonia.[43] Reval (Tallinn), similarly, accepted Swedish rule.[29] Denmark-Norway dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic.[44] Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate theNorthern Seven Years' War[44] since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval (Tallinn), claiming historical rights relating toDanish Estonia.[40] When Eric XIV's forces seized Pernau (Pärnu) in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga, which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.[40]
Sigismund maintained close relations with Eric XIV's brother,John, Duke of Finland (later John III), and in October 1562 John married Sigismund's sister,Catherine, thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV.[45] While Eric XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000dalers and received seven Livonian castles as security.[46] This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Eric XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark andLübeck against Eric XIV in October the same year.[40]
The intervention of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as thedominium maris baltici.[47] While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified.[48] Denmark, Sweden, and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with theNordic Seven Years' War (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic,[49] but Livonia remained strategically important.[29] In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded theTreaty of Mozhaysk, respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations.[50] In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce.[51] Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs ofmental disorder,[52] with Ivan IV turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with theoprichina that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.[40]
Cannibalism in Lithuania during the Russian invasion in 1571, German plate
When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension.[40] The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and he invaded Lithuania.[40] His army raidedVitebsk and, after a series of border clashes, tookPolotsk in 1563.[40] Lithuanian victories came at theBattle of Ula in 1564[40] and atCzasniki (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania.[53] The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection ofAndrey Kurbsky, led Ivan IV to move his capital to theAlexandrov Kremlin while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by hisoprichniki.[40]
A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566.[54] Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding ofCourland in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border.[55] The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to theRiver Dvina, troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it.[55] Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including thezemsky sobor, theAssembly of the Land) to discuss the issues at stake.[55] Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (though it had not yet been conquered),[56] while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the return of the ambassadors to Lithuania.[55]
In 1569, theTreaty of Lublin unified Poland and Lithuania into thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. TheDuchy of Livonia, tied to Lithuania inreal union since theUnion of Grodno in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanianjoint sovereignty.[57] In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia.[58] Sigismund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the firstfree election in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return ofKiev, an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son,Feodor, as King.[59] The electorate rejected these demands and instead choseHenry of Valois (Henryk Walezy), brother of KingCharles IX of France.[60]
In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed theTreaty of Dorpat, whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval (Tallinn) and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia.[61] A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565.[54]Eric XIV of Sweden was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in theSture Murders (Sturemorden) of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brotherJohn III.[62] Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia.[63] Ivan IV had requested the delivery of John's wife, the Polish-Lithuanian princessCatherine Jagellonica, to Russia, since he had competed with John to marry into the Lithuanian-Polish royal family. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led byPaul Juusten,Bishop of Åbo,[64] which arrived inNovgorod in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod.[64] The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party, that their clothes and money be taken, and that they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets.[64]
Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, this occurred at the same time Ivan and hisoprichniki were on their way to launch anassault on Novgorod in northern Russia.[58] In an act of vengeance against the perceived treason of the local Orthodox church in Novgorod, Ivan's forces launched an attack on the city, where 2,000–15,000 people were killed.[65][relevant?]
On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania.[58] Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal, and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter.[58] According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded the Swedes to abandon their claim to Reval (Tallinn), provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia, and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war.[66] Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.[67]
Quarrels between Denmark-Norway and Sweden led to theNorthern Seven Years' War in 1563, which ended in 1570 with theTreaty of Stettin.[68] Primarily fought in western and southernScandinavia, the war involved important naval battles fought in theBaltic.[68] When Danish-heldVarberg surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden.[69] Among them wasPontus de la Gardie,[69] who thereafter became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War.[70] Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiralPeder Munk, who bombarded Swedish Reval (Tallinn) from sea in July 1569.[71]
The Treaty of Stettin made Denmark the supreme and dominating power inNorthern Europe, yet failed to restore theKalmar Union. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with theGreat Northern War in 1720.[72] Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment byHoly Roman EmperorMaximilian II. Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, however, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs.[72] The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued.[73] From Ivan's point of view, the treaty enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.[74]
1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia
Map showing areas of Russian and Polish–Lithuanian forces, 1570–1577.
occupied by Russian forces in 1570
occupied by Russian forces 1572–1577
occupied by Lithuanian forces
During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.[75] Reval (Tallinn) withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571,[76] but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces. On 23 January a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry under command ofClas Åkesson Tott (the Elder) clashed with a Russian and Tartar army of 16,000 men under the command of KhanSain-Bulat at theBattle of Lode by the village ofKoluvere. The Russian advance concluded with the sacking ofWeissenstein (Paide) in 1573, where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg,[75] to which the army departed in November 1573[77] with Klas Åkesson Tott in overall command andPontus de la Gardie as field commander.[75] There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far asHelsingfors (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.[78]
John's counter-offensive stalled at thesiege of Wesenberg in 1574, when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other.[79] This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry.[80] The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000daler.[78] John gave them the castles ofHapsal,Leal, andLode as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.[78]
Meanwhile, efforts byMagnus to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval (Tallinn) were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother,Frederick II of Denmark forthcoming.[74] Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere, while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity that made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1571,[74] whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.[74]
At the same timeCrimean Tatars devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during theRusso-Crimean Wars.[75] Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy whileoprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean andNogai forces in 1572,oprichnina was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed.[81] Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, Cossacks and Tatars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.[82]
Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577[62] and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement.[83] Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn) and central Livonia raided as far asDünaburg (Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561Treaty of Vilnius.[79] The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,[79] declared monarch of theKingdom of Livonia in 1570.[62] Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year,[84] having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. WhenKokenhusen (Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders.[62] The campaignthen focussed on Wenden (Cēsis, Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.[79]
In 1576, theTransylvanian princeStephen Báthory became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania aftera contested election to the joint Polish–Lithuanian throne with theHabsburgEmperor Maximilian II.[85] Both Báthory's fiancéeAnna Jagiellon and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart;[85] Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating.[86] Báthory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition ofDanzig (Gdansk), which resisted Báthory's accession with Danish support.[87] The ensuingDanzig War of 1577 ended when Báthory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000zlotys.[87] For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointedHohenzollernGeorge Frederick as administrator ofPrussia and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.[87]
Báthory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries, primarily Poles,Hungarians,Bohemians,Germans, andWallachians. A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia.[1]
Swedish King John III and Stephen Báthory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigismund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine, had not been resolved.[88] Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it.[88] The 120,000daler lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.[88]
By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg[89] while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578.[90] Russian forces failed to retake the town in February,[89] an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targetingPernau (Pärnu), Dorpat, andNovgorod among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recapturedOberpahlen (Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden.[89][90] Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish, and Swedish soldiers.[90] In the ensuingBattle of Wenden, Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first serious defeat in Livonia.[90]
Báthory accelerated the formation of thehussars, a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy.[91] Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruitedcossacks.[91] Báthory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania,[91] for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of awider campaign. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579.[91] Báthory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court,Jan Zamoyski, to lead a force of 48,000, including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress ofVelikie Luki which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580.[91] Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh, and Usvzat fell quickly.[92] In 1581, the forcebesieged Pskov, a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Báthory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter.[91] Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed theTruce of Jam Zapolski.[91]
The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led toPontus de la Gardie's appointment as commander-in-chief.[93] The towns ofKexholm andPadise were taken by Swedish forces in 1580,[93] then in 1581, concurrent with the fall ofWesenberg, amercenary army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva.[93] A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet[94] but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland.[94] Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres,[95] 7,000 Russians were killed according toRussow's contemporary chronicle.[96] The fall of Narva was followed by those ofIvangorod,Jama, andKoporye,[97] leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.[97]
Subsequent negotiations led byJesuitpapal legateAntonio Possevino resulted in the 1582Truce of Jam Zapolski between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[97] This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce.[97] Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat (Tartu) to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Báthory's control to Russia.[97] Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Báthory.[97] The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601.[98] Báthory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.[97]
Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended when the Tsar concluded theTruce of Plussa (Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa) with Sweden on 10 August 1583.[97][99] Russia relinquished most of Ingria, leaving Narva and Ivangorod as well under Swedish control.[99] Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590.[99] During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.[97]
The post-warDuchy of Courland and Semigallia south of theDüna (Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617Formula regiminis andStatuta Curlandiæ, which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.[100] North of the Düna, Báthory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted theDuchy of Livonia, regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war.[57] Riga's privileges had already been reduced by theTreaty of Drohiczyn in 1581.[101]Polish gradually replacedGerman as the administrative language and the establishment ofvoivodeships reduced theBaltic German administration.[37] The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced theCounter-Reformation[38] in a process assisted by Báthory, who gave theRoman Catholic Church revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.[102] Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not converten masse, while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.[102]
Map showing Sweden in the Baltic, 1560 to 1721. Dates are those of occupation, and those in brackets dates of loss.
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed[99] while the ensuingRusso-Swedish War of 1590–5 ended with theTreaty of Teusina (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cedeIngria andKexholm to Russia.[103] The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of LithuaniaSigismund III, who as son ofJohn III of Sweden (died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle,Charles of Södermanland (later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself.[103] Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599war against Sigismund, which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedishriksdag.[103]
Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporateSwedish Estonia into the Duchy of Livonia.[104] Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia[104] andinvaded the Livonian duchy, starting a series ofPolish–Swedish wars.[105] At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("Time of Troubles") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting thePolish–Muscovite War.[105] Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia[106] after major setbacks at the battles ofKokenhausen(1601) andKircholm (1605).[107][106] During the laterIngrian War, Charles' successorGustavus Adolphus retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617Treaty of Stolbovo[106] along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from theKalmar War with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but onlyPernau (Pärnu) remained under Swedish control after aPolish–Lithuanian counter-offensive.[108]A second campaign then started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where thedominion ofSwedish Livonia was created.[104] Swedish forces then advanced throughRoyal Prussia and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629Treaty of Altmark.[109]
^The Order was led by aHochmeister, an office that since 1525 had been executed by theDeutschmeister responsible for the bailiwicks in theHoly Roman Empire; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle ofGebietigers headed by aLandmeister elected from amongst the membership
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